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  There were a total of 300 airspace citations for the 200 incident reports in the data set.
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  There were a total of 356 flight phase citations for the 200 incident reports in the data set.
Surface Versus Airborne Communications Incidents
One third of our data set (66 reports) described incidents involving aircraft operating on an airport surface, and conducting external radio communications. In our extensive experience as flight instructors, the amount of time spent on the airport surface in any type of dual instruction is generally small–usually 15 percent (or less) of an instructional period, even in primary instruction. The occurrence of more GA dual instruction incidents on the airport surface than expected suggests that airports may be a problematic environment for communications-related incidents.9
For both surface and airborne incidents that involved external radio communications, control tower communications were reported the most frequently. Of the 66 surface-based incidents, 47 (71 percent) cited communications with a control tower. Another 117 reports that involved airborne operations cited ongoing ATC communications. Of these, 52 incidents (44 percent) cited communication with towers, 39 incidents (33 percent) referenced communication with TRACONs, and 21 incidents (18 percent) cited communications with UNICOM or Centers. The prevalence of tower-communication reports in our study set reinforces the notion that effective management of instructional communications while monitoring Tower frequencies is crucial to the effective and safe conduct of dual training operations, both while on the surface and airborne.

INTERNAL FACTORS
All reports included in our study set were classified into broad groupings of verbal communication anomalies that occurred within the cockpit. Drawing on explicit references from the study reports, we classified the types of instructor/trainee statements, determined whether these statements were heard by the intended recipient, and evaluated the timeliness and appropriateness of responses these statements elicited. Additionally, we sought to identify the equipment and task or workload-related (operational) factors which played material roles in the events.
Cockpit Communications Anomalies
Figure 4 depicts the leading instructor communications anomalies, the leading trainee communications anomalies, and the three most frequently occurring combinations of instructor/trainee verbal interaction problems.
Confusing, erroneous, or misleading statements were the leading type of instructor communications anomaly (30 percent of citations).10 Delayed or withheld communications by instructors were the next

  To provide a context for this study finding, we searched for statistics on the numbers of total GA ground operations that occur      daily and/or annually in the U.S. We discovered that the Boeing Company has done a study for insurance purposes of the amount of time an air carrier aircraft spends on the ground in maintenance.  However, we were unable to find comparable data      on the numbers of GA ground operations for any time period.
　
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