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Figure 2-19. Performance instruments.
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PDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34VOR 1 270°2112430042004100400039003800430060204000400013012011090807011009TAS 100KTALERTSNAV1 108.00 113.00NAV2 108.00 110.60134.000 118.000 COM1123.800 118.000 COM2WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _°T TRK 360°TXPDR55377IDNTLCL23:34 T130130130ALERTSNAV1108.00 110.6018.000COM118.000COM2WPT_ __500270°Slip/Skid indicatorTurn rate trend vectorAltimeter andAltitude trend tapeVertical speed and tape indicatorAirspeed indicatorAltimeter indicatorAltitude indicatorTurn coordinator Heading indicator Vertical speed indicator Airspeed tape indicatorTurn rate indicator
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Figure 2-20. Control instruments.
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Figure 2-21. A comparison of navigation information as depicted on both analog and digital displays.
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BSNESW33324211512306TO3330242II5I26323330242II5I263OBSNESW33324211512306TO1160°Present position, inbound on 160° radial.CRS 340°HDG 360°340°1The aircraft illustrated is heading 020°, but the course is to the left.CRS 340°HDG 360°VOR 1020°2AOBSNESW33324211512306NAVGSView is from the pilotsperspective, and the movable card is reset after each turn
Figure 2-22. Analog and digital indications for glideslope interception.
Fl
y upOBSFRTONESW33324211512306NAV 120 20I0 I02 0I 0442002004100390033800800202080804000Glideslope needle indicates “fly up” to intercept glideslopeFly downOBSFRTONESW33324211512306NAV 120 20I0 I02 0I 0442002004100390033800800202080804000Glideslope needle indicates “fly down” to intercept glideslope25Glideslope
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3-1
Introduction
This chapter examines the fundamental physical laws governing the forces acting on an aircraft in flight, and what effect these natural laws and forces have on the performance characteristics of aircraft. To control an aircraft, be it an airplane, helicopter, glider, or balloon, the pilot must understand the principles involved and learn to use or counteract these natural forces.
Structure of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is an envelope of air that surrounds the Earth and rests upon its surface. It is as much a part of the Earth as the seas or the land, but air differs from land and water as it is a mixture of gases. It has mass, weight, and indefinite shape.
The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent other gases, such as argon or helium. Some of these elements are heavier than others. The heavier elements, such as oxygen, settle to the surface of the Earth, while the lighter elements are lifted up to the region of higher altitude. Most of the atmosphere’s oxygen is contained below 35,000 feet altitude.
Air, like fluid, is able to flow and change shape when subjected to even minute pressures because it lacks strong molecular cohesion. For example, gas completely fills any container into which it is placed, expanding or contracting to adjust its shape to the limits of the container.
Principles of Flight
Chapter 3
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igure 2-1. Standard sea level pressure.3025201510 5 0Inches of MercuryMillibars1016847677508339 170 029.92StandardSea LevelPressureHg1013StandardSea LevelPressurembAtmospheric Pressure
Figure 3-1. Standard sea level pressure.
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igure 2-2. Properties of standard atmosphere.Altitude (ft)Pressure (Hg)Temperature(°C)(°F)Standard Atmosphere01,0002,0003,0004,0005,0006,0007,0008,0009,00010,00011,00012,00013,00014,00015,00016,00017,00018,00019,00020,00029.928.8627.8226.8225.8424.8923.9823.0922.2221.3820.5719.7919.0218.2917.5716.8816.2115.5614.9414.3313.7415.013.011.09.17.15.13.11.1-0.9-2.8-4.8-6.8-8.8-10.8-12.7-14.7-16.7-18.7-20.7-22.6-24.659.055.451.948.344.741.237.634.030.526.923.319.816.212.69.15.51.9-1.6-5.2-8.8-12.3
Figure 3-2. Properties of standard atmosphere.
Atmospheric Pressure
Although there are various kinds of pressure, pilots are mainly concerned with atmospheric pressure. It is one of the basic factors in weather changes, helps to lift an aircraft, and actuates some of the important flight instruments. These instruments are the altimeter, airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator, and manifold pressure gauge.
Air is very light, but it has mass and is affected by the attraction of gravity. Therefore, like any other substance, it has weight, and because of its weight, it has force. Since it is a fluid substance, this force is exerted equally in all directions, and its effect on bodies within the air is called pressure. Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere is approximately 14.70 pounds per square inch (psi) of surface, or 1,013.2 millibars (mb). Its thickness is limited; therefore, the higher the altitude, the less air there is above. For this reason, the weight of the atmosphere at 18,000 feet is one-half what it is at sea level.
The pressure of the atmosphere varies with time and location. Due to the changing atmospheric pressure, a standard reference was developed. The standard atmosphere at sea level is a surface temperature of 59 °F or 15 °C and a surface pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury ("Hg), or 1,013.2 mb. [Figure 3-1]
　
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