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the next maneuver is not going to proceed into another
airplane’s flightpath. Some pilot training programs
have hard and fast rules, such as requiring two 90°
turns in opposite directions before executing any
training maneuver. Other types of clearing procedures
may be developed by individual flight instructors.
Whatever the preferred method, the flight instructor
should teach the beginning student an effective clearing
procedure and insist on its use. The student pilot
should execute the appropriate clearing procedure
before all turns and before executing any training
maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, combined
with proper visual scanning techniques, are the most
effective strategy for collision avoidance.
RUNWAY INCURSION AVOIDANCE
A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport
involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the
ground that creates a collision hazard or results in a
loss of separation with an aircraft taking off, landing,
or intending to land. The three major areas contributing
to runway incursions are:
• Communications,
• Airport knowledge, and
• Cockpit procedures for maintaining orientation.
Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the entire
flight crew, not just the pilot taxiing the airplane. This
is especially true during flight training operations.
Both the student pilot and the flight instructor need to
be continually aware of the movement and location of
Figure 1-3. PTS books.
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other aircraft and ground vehicles on the airport
movement area. Many flight training activities are
conducted at non-tower controlled airports. The
absence of an operating airport control tower creates a
need for increased vigilance on the part of pilots operating
at those airports.
Planning, clear communications, and enhanced
situational awareness during airport surface
operations will reduce the potential for surface incidents.
Safe aircraft operations can be accomplished
and incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly trained
early on and, throughout his/her flying career,
accomplishes standard taxi operating procedures and
practices. This requires the development of the
formalized teaching of safe operating practices during
taxi operations. The flight instructor is the key to this
teaching. The flight instructor should instill in the
student an awareness of the potential for runway
incursion, and should emphasize the runway
incursion avoidance procedures contained in
Advisory Circular (AC) 91-73, Part 91 Pilot and
Flightcrew Procedures During Taxi Operations and
Part 135 Single-Pilot Operations.
STALL AWARENESS
14 CFR part 61 requires that a student pilot receive and
log flight training in stalls and stall recoveries prior to
solo flight. During this training, the flight instructor
should emphasize that the direct cause of every stall is
an excessive angle of attack. The student pilot should
fully understand that there are any number of flight
maneuvers which may produce an increase in the
wing’s angle of attack, but the stall does not occur until
the angle of attack becomes excessive. This “critical”
angle of attack varies from 16 to 20° depending on the
airplane design.
The flight instructor must emphasize that low speed is
not necessary to produce a stall. The wing can be
brought to an excessive angle of attack at any speed.
High pitch attitude is not an absolute indication of
proximity to a stall. Some airplanes are capable of vertical
flight with a corresponding low angle of attack.
Most airplanes are quite capable of stalling at a level or
near level pitch attitude.
The key to stall awareness is the pilot’s ability to
visualize the wing’s angle of attack in any particular
circumstance, and thereby be able to estimate his/her
margin of safety above stall. This is a learned skill
that must be acquired early in flight training and
carried through the pilot’s entire flying career. The
pilot must understand and appreciate factors such as
airspeed, pitch attitude, load factor, relative wind,
power setting, and aircraft configuration in order to
develop a reasonably accurate mental picture of the
wing’s angle of attack at any particular time. It is
essential to flight safety that a pilot take into consideration
this visualization of the wing’s angle of
attack prior to entering any flight maneuver.
USE OF CHECKLISTS
Checklists have been the foundation of pilot standardization
　
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