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grip on the flight controls, and that the control forces
desired be exerted lightly and just enough to produce
the desired result. The student should learn to associate
the apparent movement of the references with the
forces which produce it. In this way, the student can
develop the ability to regulate the change desired in
the airplane’s attitude by the amount and direction of
forces applied to the controls without the necessity of
referring to instrument or outside references for each
minor correction.
The pitch attitude for level flight (constant altitude) is
usually obtained by selecting some portion of the airplane’s
nose as a reference point, and then keeping
that point in a fixed position relative to the horizon.
[Figure 3-3] Using the principles of attitude flying,
that position should be cross-checked occasionally
against the altimeter to determine whether or not the
pitch attitude is correct. If altitude is being gained or
lost, the pitch attitude should be readjusted in relation
to the horizon and then the altimeter rechecked
to determine if altitude is now being maintained. The
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application of forward or back-elevator pressure is
used to control this attitude.
The pitch information obtained from the attitude indicator
also will show the position of the nose relative to
the horizon and will indicate whether elevator pressure
is necessary to change the pitch attitude to return to
level flight. However, the primary reference source is
the natural horizon.
In all normal maneuvers, the term “increase the pitch
attitude” implies raising the nose in relation to the horizon;
the term “decreasing the pitch attitude” means
lowering the nose.
Straight flight (laterally level flight) is accomplished
by visually checking the relationship of the airplane’s
wingtips with the horizon. Both wingtips should be
equidistant above or below the horizon (depending on
whether the airplane is a high-wing or low-wing type),
and any necessary adjustments should be made with
the ailerons, noting the relationship of control pressure
and the airplane’s attitude. [Figure 3-4] The student
should understand that anytime the wings are banked,
even though very slightly, the airplane will turn. The
objective of straight-and-level flight is to detect small
deviations from laterally level flight as soon as they
occur, necessitating only small corrections. Reference
to the heading indicator should be made to note any
change in direction.
STRAIGHT AND LEVEL
Fixed
Reference Point
Figure 3-3. Nose reference for straight-and-level flight.
Figure 3-4. Wingtip reference for straight-and-level flight.
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Continually observing the wingtips has advantages
other than being the only positive check for leveling the
wings. It also helps divert the pilot’s attention from the
airplane’s nose, prevents a fixed stare, and automatically
expands the pilot’s area of vision by increasing the range
necessary for the pilot’s vision to cover. In practicing
straight-and-level-flight, the wingtips can be used not
only for establishing the airplane’s laterally level attitude
or bank, but to a lesser degree, its pitch attitude.
This is noted only for assistance in learning straight-andlevel
flight, and is not a recommended practice in normal
operations.
The scope of a student’s vision is also very important,
for if it is obscured the student will tend to look out to
one side continually (usually the left) and consequently
lean that way. This not only gives the student a biased
angle from which to judge, but also causes the student
to exert unconscious pressure on the controls in that
direction, which results in dragging a wing.
With the wings approximately level, it is possible to
maintain straight flight by simply exerting the necessary
forces on the rudder in the desired direction.
However, the instructor should point out that the
practice of using rudder alone is not correct and may
make precise control of the airplane difficult.
Straight–and-level flight requires almost no application
of control pressures if the airplane is properly
trimmed and the air is smooth. For that reason, the
student must not form the habit of constantly moving
the controls unnecessarily. The student must learn to
recognize when corrections are necessary, and then to
make a measured response easily and naturally.
To obtain the proper conception of the forces
　
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