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• Item 6 is the proposed departure time in UTC (indicated by the “Z”).
• Item 7 is the cruising altitude. Normally, “VFR” can be entered in this block, since the pilot chooses a cruising altitude to conform to FAA regulations.
• Item 8 is the route of flight. If the flight is to be direct, enter the word “direct;” if not, enter the actual route to be followed such as via certain towns or navigation aids.
• Item 10 is the estimated time en route. In the sample flight plan, 5 minutes was added to the total time to allow for the climb.
• Item 12 is the fuel on board in hours and minutes. This is determined by dividing the total usable fuel aboard in gallons by the estimated rate of fuel consumption in gallons.
Remember, there is every advantage in filing a flight plan; but do not forget to close the flight plan on arrival. Do this by telephone to avoid radio congestion.Radio Navigation
Advances in navigational radio receivers installed in aircraft, the development of aeronautical charts which show the exact location of ground transmitting stations and their frequencies, along with refined flight deck instrumentation make it possible for pilots to navigate with precision to almost any point desired. Although precision in navigation is obtainable through the proper use of this equipment, beginning pilots should use this equipment to supplement navigation by visual reference to the ground (pilotage). This method provides the
15-22
Figure 15-28. VHF transmissions follow a line-of-sight course.
“A”
and “B” SignalReceivedNeither “A” nor “B” Signal ReceivedOnly “A” Signal ReceivedOnly “B” Signal ReceivedVORStation“A”VORStation“B”
pilot with an effective safeguard against disorientation in the event of radio malfunction.
There are four radio navigation systems available for use for VFR navigation. These are:
• VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
• Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB)
• Long Range Navigation (LORAN-C)
• Global Positioning System (GPS)Very High Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
The VOR system is present in three slightly different navigation aids (NAVAIDs): VOR, VOR/DME, and VORTAC. By itself it is known as a VOR, and it provides magnetic bearing information to and from the station. When DME is also installed with a VOR, the NAVAID is referred to as a VOR/DME. When military tactical air navigation (TACAN) equipment is installed with a VOR, the NAVAID is known as a VORTAC. DME is always an integral part of a VORTAC. Regardless of the type of NAVAID utilized (VOR, VOR/DME or VORTAC), the VOR indicator behaves the same. Unless otherwise noted, in this section, VOR, VOR/DME and VORTAC NAVAIDs are all referred to hereafter as VORs.
The prefix “omni-” means all, and an omnidirectional range is a VHF radio transmitting ground station that projects straight line courses (radials) from the station in all directions. From a top view, it can be visualized as being similar to the spokes from the hub of a wheel. The distance VOR radials are projected depends upon the power output of the transmitter.
The course or radials projected from the station are referenced to magnetic north. Therefore, a radial is defined as a line of magnetic bearing extending outward from the VOR station. Radials are identified by numbers beginning with 001, which is 1° east of magnetic north, and progress in sequence through all the degrees of a circle until reaching 360. To aid in orientation, a compass rose reference to magnetic north is superimposed on aeronautical charts at the station location.
VOR ground stations transmit within a VHF frequency band of 108.0–117.95 MHz. Because the equipment is VHF, the signals transmitted are subject to line-of-sight restrictions. Therefore, its range varies in direct proportion to the altitude of receiving equipment. Generally, the reception range of the signals at an altitude of 1,000 feet above ground level (AGL) is about 40 to 45 miles. This distance increases with altitude. [Figure 15-28]
VORs and VORTACs are classed according to operational use. There are three classes:
• T (Terminal)
• L (Low altitude)
• H (High altitude)
The normal useful range for the various classes is shown in the following table:
VOR/VORTAC NAVAIDS
Normal Usable Altitudes and Radius Distances
Distance
Class Altitudes (Miles)
T 12,000' and below 25
L Below 18,000' 40
H Below 14,500' 40
H Within the conterminous 48 states
only, between 14,500 and 17,999' 100
H 18,000'—FL 450 130
H 60,000'—FL 450 100
The useful range of certain facilities may be less than 50 miles. For further information concerning these restrictions, refer to the Communication/NAVAID Remarks in the A/FD.
　
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