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Night flying requires special consideration.
• If the trip includes flying at night over water or unpopulated areas with the chance of losing visual reference to the horizon, the pilot must be prepared to fly IFR.
• Will the flight conditions allow a safe emergency landing at night?
• Preflight all aircraft lights, interior and exterior, for a night flight. Carry at least two flashlights—one for exterior preflight and a smaller one that can be dimmed and kept nearby.
E = External Pressures
External pressures are influences external to the flight that create a sense of pressure to complete a flight—often at the expense of safety. Factors that can be external pressures include the following:
• Someone waiting at the airport for the flight’s arrival.
• A passenger the pilot does not want to disappoint.
• The desire to demonstrate pilot qualifications.
• The desire to impress someone. (Probably the two most dangerous words in aviation are “Watch this!”)
• The desire to satisfy a specific personal goal (“get-home-itis,” “get-there-itis,” and “let’s-go-itis”).
• The pilot’s general goal-completion orientation.
• Emotional pressure associated with acknowledging that skill and experience levels may be lower than a pilot would like them to be. Pride can be a powerful external factor!
Management of external pressure is the single most important key to risk management because it is the one risk factor category that can cause a pilot to ignore all the other risk factors. External pressures put time-related pressure on the pilot and figure into a majority of accidents.
The use of personal standard operating procedures (SOPs) is one way to manage external pressures. The goal is to supply a release for the external pressures of a flight. These procedures include but are not limited to:
• Allow time on a trip for an extra fuel stop or to make an unexpected landing because of weather.
• Have alternate plans for a late arrival or make backup airline reservations for must-be-there trips.
• For really important trips, plan to leave early enough so that there would still be time to drive to the destination.
• Advise those who are waiting at the destination that the arrival may be delayed. Know how to notify them when delays are encountered.
• Manage passengers’ expectations. Make sure passengers know that they might not arrive on a firm schedule, and if they must arrive by a certain time, they should make alternative plans.
9-8
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o maintain situational awareness, an accurate perception must be attained of how the pilot, aircraft, environment, and external pressures combine to affect the flight.SituationRISK ELEMENTSRISK ELEMENTSEnvironmentAircraftPilotExternal PressuresFactors such as weather and airport conditions must be examined.The aircraft performance, limitations, equipment, and airworthiness must be deter- mined.The purpose of the flight is a factor that influences the pilot’s decision to begin or continue the flight.The pilot’s fitness to fly must be evaluated, including com-petency in the aircraft, currency, and flight experience.
Figure 9-4. One of the most important decisions that the pilot in command must make is the go/no-go decision. Evaluating each of these risk elements can help the pilot decide whether a flight should be conducted or continued.
• Eliminate pressure to return home, even on a casual day flight, by carrying a small overnight kit containing prescriptions, contact lens solutions, toiletries, or other necessities on every flight.
The key to managing external pressure is to be ready for and accept delays. Remember that people get delayed when traveling on airlines, driving a car, or taking a bus. The pilot’s goal is to manage risk, not create hazards.
During each flight, decisions must be made regarding events involving interactions between the four risk elements—PIC, aircraft, environment, and external pressures. The decision-making process involves an evaluation of each of these risk elements to achieve an accurate perception of the flight situation. [Figure 9-4] Three-P Model for Pilots
Risk management is a decision-making process designed to perceive hazards systematically, assess the degree of risk associated with a hazard, and determine the best course of action (see Appendix F). For example, the Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) model for aeronautical decision-making (ADM) offers a simple, practical, and structured way for pilots to manage risk. [Figure 9-5]
To use the 3P model, the pilot:
• Perceives the given set of circumstances for a flight.
• Processes by evaluating the impact of those circumstances on flight safety.
• Performs by implementing the best course of action.
In the first step, the goal is to develop situational awareness by perceiving hazards, which are present events, objects, or circumstances that could contribute to an undesired future event. In this step, the pilot systematically identifies and lists hazards associated with all aspects of the flight: pilot, aircraft, environment, and external pressures. It is important to consider how individual hazards might combine. Consider, for example, the hazard that arises when a new instrument pilot with no experience in actual instrument conditions wants to make a cross-country flight to an airport with low ceilings in order to attend an important business meeting.
　
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