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turn is to be certain that the next maneuver is not going
to proceed into another aircraft’s flightpath. Some
pilot training programs have hard and fast rules, such
as requiring two 90° turns in opposite directions before
executing any training maneuver. Other types of
clearing procedures may be developed by individual
flight instructors. Whatever the preferred method, a
clearing procedure should be used. Execute the appropriate
clearing procedure before all turns and before
executing any training maneuver. Proper clearing
procedures, combined with proper visual scanning
techniques, are the most effective strategy for collision
avoidance.
Ground reference maneuvers should be flown so as
not to descend below 200 feet above the ground. The
actual altitude will depend on a number of factors.
You should plan and fly the maneuver so as not to
descend below an altitude of 200 feet above ground
level (AGL); however you must also plan and fly so as
not to come closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel,
vehicle or structure.
Purpose and Scope
Ground reference maneuvers and their related factors
are used in developing a high degree of pilot skill.
Although most of these maneuvers are not performed
as such in normal everyday flying, the elements and
principles involved in each are applicable to performance
of the customary pilot operations. They aid the
pilot in analyzing the effect of wind and other forces
acting on the powered parachute, and in developing a
fine control touch and the division of attention necessary
for accurate and safe powered parachute maneuvering.
All of the early part of the pilot’s training has been
conducted for the purpose of developing technique,
knowledge of maneuvers, feel, and the handling of the
powered parachute in general. This training will have
required that most of the pilot’s attention be given to
the actual handling of the powered parachute, and the
results of control pressures on the action of the powered
parachute.
If permitted to continue beyond the appropriate training
stage, however, the student pilot’s concentration
of attention will become a fixed habit, one that will
seriously detract from the student’s ease and safety as
a pilot, and will be very difficult to eliminate. Therefore
it is necessary, as soon as the pilot shows proficiency
in the fundamental maneuvers, that the pilot be
introduced to maneuvers requiring outside attention
on a practical application of these maneuvers and the
knowledge gained.
During ground reference maneuvers, it is important
that basic flying technique previously learned be
maintained. The flight instructor should not allow
any relaxation of the student’s previous standard of
technique simply because a new factor is added. This
requirement should be maintained throughout the
student’s progress from maneuver to maneuver. Each
new maneuver should embody some advance and include
the principles of the preceding one in order that
continuity is maintained. Each new factor introduced
9-2
• The radius of the turn and the path of the
powered parachute over the ground should be
easily noted and changes planned and effected
as circumstances require.
• Drift should be easily discernable, but not tax
the student too much in making corrections.
• The altitude should be low enough to render
any gain or loss apparent to the student, but
in no case closer than 500 feet to the highest
obstruction or lower then 200 feet above the
ground.
During these maneuvers, both the instructor and the
student should be alert for available forced-landing
fields. The area chosen should be away from communities,
livestock, or groups of people to prevent
possible annoyance or hazards to others. Due to the
altitudes at which these maneuvers are performed,
there is little time available to search for a suitable
field for landing in the event the need arises.
Drift and Ground Track Control
Whenever any object is free from the ground, it is
affected by the medium with which it is surrounded.
This means that a free object will continue to move in
its current direction and speed unless acted upon by
another force. For example, if a powerboat is crossing
a river and the river is still, the boat could head
directly to a point on the opposite shore and travel on
a straight course to that point without drifting. However,
if the river were flowing swiftly, the water current
would have to be considered. That is, as the boat
　
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