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night or in adverse weather conditions. Consult
airport diagrams and the Airport/Facility Directory
(A/FD) for information on runway slope, terrain, and
lighting.
2. Make frequent reference to the altimeter, especially
during all approaches, day and night.
3. If possible, conduct aerial visual inspection of
unfamiliar airports before landing.
8. Most importantly, become proficient in the use of
flight instruments and rely upon them. Trust the
instruments and disregard your sensory perceptions.
The sensations that lead to illusions during instrument
flight conditions are normal perceptions experienced by
pilots. These undesirable sensations cannot be completely
prevented, but through training and awareness, pilots can
ignore or suppress them by developing absolute reliance
on the flight instruments. As pilots gain proficiency in
instrument flying, they become less susceptible to these
illusions and their effects.
Optical Illusions
Of the senses, vision is the most important for safe flight.
However, various terrain features and atmospheric conditions
can create optical illusions. These illusions are primarily
associated with landing. Since pilots must transition from
reliance on instruments to visual cues outside the flight
deck for landing at the end of an instrument approach, it is
imperative they be aware of the potential problems associated
with these illusions, and take appropriate corrective action.
The major illusions leading to landing errors are described
below.
Runway Width Illusion
A narrower-than-usual runway can create an illusion the
aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is, especially
when runway length-to-width relationships are comparable.
[Figure 1-9A] The pilot who does not recognize this illusion
will fly a lower approach, with the risk of striking objects
along the approach path or landing short. A wider-than-usual
runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of leveling
out high and landing hard, or overshooting the runway.
Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion
An upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can create
an illusion the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually
is. [Figure 1-9B] The pilot who does not recognize this
illusion will fly a lower approach. Downsloping runways and
downsloping approach terrain can have the opposite effect.
Featureless Terrain Illusion
An absence of surrounding ground features, as in an
overwater approach, over darkened areas, or terrain made
featureless by snow, can create an illusion the aircraft is at
a higher altitude than it actually is. This illusion, sometimes
referred to as the “black hole approach,” causes pilots to fly
a lower approach than is desired.
1-10
Figure 1-9. Runway Width and Slope Illusions.
6. Recognize that the chances of being involved in an
approach accident increase when some emergency or
other activity distracts from usual procedures.
7. Maintain optimum proficiency in landing procedures.
4. Use Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) or
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) systems
for a visual reference, or an electronic glide slope,
whenever they are available.
5. Utilize the visual descent point (VDP) found on many
nonprecision instrument approach procedure charts.
1-11
Figure 1-10. Stress and Performance.
Physiological and Psychological Factors
Physiological or psychological factors can affect a pilot
and compromise the safety of a flight. These factors are
stress, medical, alcohol, and fatigue. Any of these factors,
individually or in combination, significantly degrade the
pilot’s decision-making or flying abilities.
Stress
Stress is the body’s response to demands placed upon it. These
demands can be either pleasant or unpleasant in nature. The
causes of stress for a pilot can range from unexpected weather
or mechanical problems while in flight, to personal issues
unrelated to flying. Stress is an inevitable and necessary part
of life; it adds motivation to life and heightens an individual’s
response to meet any challenge. The effects of stress are
cumulative and there is a limit to a person’s adaptive nature.
This limit, called the stress tolerance level (or channel
capacity), is based on the ability to cope with the situation.
At first, some amount of stress can be desirable and can
actually improve performance. However, higher stress levels,
particularly over long periods of time, can adversely affect
performance. Performance will generally increase with the
onset of stress, but will peak and then begin to fall off rapidly
　
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