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to difficulties with instrument interpretation. Uncertainty
about reading the heading indicator (interpretation) or
uncertainty because of inconsistency in rolling out of turns
(control) may cause the fixation.
Omission of an instrument from a cross-check is another
likely fault. It may be caused by failure to anticipate
significant instrument indications following attitude
changes. For example, in a roll-out from a 180° steep turn,
straight-and-level flight is established with reference only
to the attitude indicator, and the pilot neglects to check the
heading indicator for constant heading information. Because
of precession error, the attitude indicator temporarily shows
a slight error, correctable by quick reference to the other
flight instruments.
Emphasis on a single instrument, instead of on the combination
of instruments necessary for attitude information, is an
understandable fault during the initial stages of training. It
is a natural tendency to rely on the instrument that is most
readily understood, even when it provides erroneous or
inadequate information. Reliance on a single instrument is
poor technique. For example, a pilot can maintain reasonably
close altitude control with the attitude indicator, but cannot
hold altitude with precision without including the altimeter
in the cross-check.
Instrument Interpretation
The second fundamental skill, instrument interpretation, requires
more thorough study and analysis. It begins by understanding
each instrument’s construction and operating principles. Then,
this knowledge must be applied to the performance of the
aircraft being flown, the particular maneuvers to be executed,
the cross-check and control techniques applicable to that
aircraft, and the flight conditions.
For example, a pilot uses full power in a small airplane for a
5-minute climb from near sea level, and the attitude indicator
shows the miniature aircraft two bar widths (twice the
thickness of the miniature aircraft wings) above the artificial
horizon. [Figure 4-20] The airplane is climbing at 500 fpm
as shown on the VSI, and at airspeed of 90 knots, as shown
on the airspeed indicator. With the power available in this
particular airplane and the attitude selected by the pilot, the
performance is shown on the instruments. Now, set up the
identical picture on the attitude indicator in a jet airplane.
With the same airplane attitude as shown in the first example,
the VSI in the jet reads 2,000 fpm and the airspeed indicator
reads 250 knots.
As the performance capabilities of the aircraft are learned,
a pilot interprets the instrument indications appropriately
4-14
in terms of the attitude of the aircraft. If the pitch attitude
is to be determined, the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI,
and attitude indicator provide the necessary information. If
the bank attitude is to be determined, the heading indicator,
turn coordinator, and attitude indicator must be interpreted.
For each maneuver, learn what performance to expect and
the combination of instruments to be interpreted in order
to control aircraft attitude during the maneuver. It is the
two fundamental flight skills, instrument cross-check and
instrument interpretation, that provide the smooth and
seamless control necessary for basic instrument flight as
discussed at the beginning of the chapter.
4-15
Introduction
Attitude instrument flying is defined as the control of an
aircraft’s spatial position by using instruments rather than
outside visual references. As noted in Section I, today’s
aircraft come equipped with analog and/or digital instruments.
Section II acquaints the pilot with the use of digital instruments
known as an electronic flight display (EFD).
The improvements in avionics coupled with the introduction
of EFDs to general aviation aircraft offer today’s pilot an
unprecedented array of accurate instrumentation to use in
the support of instrument flying.
Airplane Attitude
Instrument Flying
Chapter 4, Section II
Using an Electronic Flight Display
4-16
Figure 4-21. Primary Flight Display (PFD) and Analog Counterparts.
Until recently, most general aviation aircraft were equipped
with individual instruments utilized collectively to safely
maneuver the aircraft by instrument reference alone. With
the release of the electronic flight display system, the
conventional instruments have been replaced by multiple
liquid crystal display (LCD) screens. The first screen is
installed in front of the left seat pilot position and is referred
to as the primary flight display (PFD). [Figure 4-21] The
　
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