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training, experience, and evaluation of the situation; whereas
the latter decision is based upon an analysis. It should be
noted that the same indication could result in two different
actions depending upon other influences.
Choosing a Course of Action
After the problem has been identified, the pilot must evaluate
the need to react to it and determine the actions that may
be taken to resolve the situation in the time available.
The expected outcome of each possible action should be
considered and the risks assessed before deciding on a
response to the situation.
Implementing the Decision and Evaluating the
Outcome
Although a decision may be reached and a course of action
implemented, the decision-making process is not complete.
It is important to think ahead and determine how the decision
could affect other phases of flight. As the flight progresses, the
pilot must continue to evaluate the outcome of the decision
to ensure that it is producing the desired result.
Improper Decision-Making Outcomes
Pilots sometimes get in trouble not because of deficient basic
skills or system knowledge, but rather because of faulty
decision-making skills. Although aeronautical decisions
may appear to be simple or routine, each individual decision
in aviation often defines the options available for the next
decision the pilot must make and the options, good or
bad, they provide. Therefore, a poor decision early on in
a flight can compromise the safety of the flight at a later
time necessitating decisions that must be more accurate and
decisive. Conversely, good decision-making early on in an
emergency provide greater latitude for options later on.
FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 60-22, defines ADM as a
systematic approach to the mental process of evaluating a
given set of circumstances and determining the best course of
action. ADM thus builds upon the foundation of conventional
decision-making, but enhances the process to decrease
the probability of pilot error. Specifically, ADM provides
a structure to help the pilot use all resources to develop
comprehensive situational awareness.
1-17
Figure 1-12. The 3P Model for Aeronautical Decision-Making.
Models for Practicing ADM
Two models for practicing ADM are presented below.
Perceive, Process, Perform
The Perceive–Process–Perform (3P) model for ADM offers
a simple, practical, and systematic approach that can be
used during all phases of flight. [Figure 1-12] To use it,
the pilot will:
• Perceive the given set of circumstances for a flight;
• Process by evaluating their impact on flight safety;
and
• Perform by implementing the best course of action.
In the first step, the goal is to develop situational awareness
by perceiving hazards, which are present events, objects, or
circumstances that could contribute to an undesired future
event. In this step, the pilot will systematically identify and
list hazards associated with all aspects of the flight: pilot,
aircraft, environment, and external pressures. It is important
to consider how individual hazards might combine. Consider,
for example, the hazard that arises when a new instrument
pilot with no experience in actual instrument conditions wants
to make a cross-country flight to an airport with low ceilings
in order to attend an important business meeting.
In the second step, the goal is to process this information
to determine whether the identified hazards constitute risk,
which is defined as the future impact of a hazard that is not
controlled or eliminated. The degree of risk posed by a given
hazard can be measured in terms of exposure (number of
people or resources affected), severity (extent of possible
loss), and probability (the likelihood that a hazard will cause
a loss). If the hazard is low ceilings, for example, the level
of risk depends on a number of other factors, such as pilot
training and experience, aircraft equipment and fuel capacity,
and others.
In the third step, the goal is to perform by taking action to
eliminate hazards or mitigate risk, and then continuously
evaluate the outcome of this action. With the example of low
ceilings at destination, for instance, the pilot can perform
good ADM by selecting a suitable alternate, knowing where
to find good weather, and carrying sufficient fuel to reach
it. This course of action would mitigate the risk. The pilot
also has the option to eliminate it entirely by waiting for
better weather.
Once the pilot has completed the 3P decision process and
selected a course of action, the process begins anew because
　
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