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China’s government is trying to promote China’s growth as a pro-vider of commercial space products and services. In the 1990s, China emerged as a major provider of commercial launch services with its Chang Zheng (“Long March”) series of launch vehicles. From 1990 to 1999, Chinese rockets launched nearly 30 satellites for customers based outside of mainland China. In the late 1990s, however, several Chang Zheng launches failed, and it was revealed that U.S. satellite com-panies had provided technical assistance to Chinese launch-vehicle- makers (who also make missiles for the Chinese military and for export), resulting in tightened U.S. restrictions on China launching satellites that contain U.S. technology. As a consequence, only a hand-ful of launches have been conducted for customers based outside of mainland China since 1999 (“Long March [Chang Zheng],” 2010). Recently, however, China has developed a domestically designed com-munications satellite, the European company EADS Astrium has developed a communications satellite that contains no U.S. technol-ogy, and as noted above, Chinese launch vehicles have established a remarkable record for reliability since 1996. As a result, the appeal of Chinese space products and services in markets outside the United States is probably increasing. China’s 11th Five-Year Plan, which ended in 2010, called for the greater integration of market mechanisms into the space program to foster competition and to generate products and services that could earn China a larger share of the global commercial space-systems market (“Aerospace Development 11th 5-Year Plan”).
A separate policy document, the “National Guidance for
Medium- and Long-Term Plans for Science and Technology Devel-opment (2006–2020),” outlines further goals for the Chinese aero-space industry. Objectives listed in the document include developing nontoxic, pollution-free, high-performance, low-cost, powerful-thrust launch vehicles capable of carrying 25-ton payloads into low earth orbit (LEO) and 14-ton payloads into geostationary orbit (GEO)1; devel-oping a 120-ton-thrust liquid-oxygen/kerosene engine and a 50-ton-thrust hydrogen-oxygen engine; improving and developing remote-sensing satellites and associated ground stations; further developing communications- and broadcast-satellite technologies; pushing toward commercialization of communications- and broadcast-satellite ser-vices; increasing the number and quality of space technology experi-ments; and developing a deep space telescope (“China’s Space Activities in 2006,” 2006).
China has maintained a relatively high launch tempo of about one launch every two months, on average, for the past decade and is steadily increasing its total number of orbiting operational satellites. At the end of 2002, China had nine satellites in orbit (Guo, 2002). Today, it has an estimated 55 operational satellites, not including communica-tions satellites owned and operated out of Hong Kong. Additionally, since 2002, there have been five recoverable photoreconnaissance satel-lite missions, three manned missions (manned spaceflight program), and two lunar observation missions, and a commercial communica-tions satellite was successfully built and launched for Venezuela (“UCS Satellite Database”; “Long March [Chang Zheng],” 2010; “Chang’e Series,” 2010).
　
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