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must be assimilated. Constant retraining, changes to procedures, equipment and
aircraft types and performance characteristics require controllers to constantly
adapt and be mentally flexible or be overtaken by change.
2.2 The Pilot/Controller Relationship—the “Awkward Alliance”
Ruitenberg (1995) has contrasted the work of pilots and controllers. Although trained
to deal with many potentialities, pilots in their normal work ideally should encounter
no problems. But the routine work of a controller almost exclusively exists of
problem solving, in trying to accommodate traffic safely, efficiently and in an orderly
manner in the available airspace. Pilots and controllers have differing perspectives of
the conflicting pressures of safety and efficiency. Firstly, a controller has several
aircraft to deal with whereas a pilot is concerned with one. The pilot wants to fly the
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aircraft in the most efficient manner by choosing direct routes or those with the most
favourable winds and optimal altitudes. This is not always compatible with the
controller’s problem of safely managing numerous climbing, descending and crossing
aircraft spread throughout a large airspace volume but converging and congregating at
a few airports or navigation aids. Secondly, the controller’s perspective of efficiency
differs because his or her goal is to maintain an evenly spaced flow of all aircraft from
airport to airport, even if this means slowing, holding or ‘track stretching’ aircraft to
delay their arrival. The aircraft crew are under pressure to deliver their passengers on
time and to ensure that the aircraft is available for its next scheduled flight. The
controller tries to maintain sensitivity to the crew’s need to avoid excessive and
abrupt manoeuvring (for passenger comfort) while achieving safe separation with
other aircraft and efficient sequencing.
Besco (1997) has labelled the controller/pilot relationship the “awkward alliance”.
There are numerous causes for tension, such as the role of the controller as ‘traffic
cop’, the propensity for pilots to bend the truth on time estimates and weather
conditions to gain a higher priority and track shortening, and due to perceived status
and salary differences. The relationship is unique, he states, because it is not based on
emotional attachments nor on political commitments nor organisational pressures. The
pilots’ convictions of positive expectations are based upon repeated successes of
consistent, successful and dependable performance. On any flight, a pilot deals with a
dozen or more controllers, none of whom are known personally, and, similarly, a
controller deals with dozens of pilots. In order for the system to work, exchanges
must be calm and professional. Controllers supply the support that has enabled all
skill levels of pilots flying all types of aircraft to safely complete all types of flight
plans through airspace and to airports of all complexity levels in all types of weather.
Pilots, because they have an incomplete knowledge of the air traffic situation, literally
put their own lives and the lives of their passengers in the hands of controllers. They
place a heavy reliance on the voices of the air traffic control system.
The role of the pilot in the exchange of verbal information differs from that of the
controller and is succinctly established in the Civil Aviation Regulation (CAR) 100:
(1) An aircraft shall comply with air traffic control instructions.
(4) The pilot in command of an aircraft is responsible for compliance
with air traffic control clearances and air traffic control instructions.
(Civil Aviation Safety Authority, 1998)
The pilot’s task then, except in an emergency, is to receive advisory information,
accept instructions, and to act upon them. The pilot must trust a controller’s
commands because he or she is not, in general, in receipt of enough information
regarding the traffic disposition to question them. The pilot provides an element of
redundancy by reading back certain instructions, such as clearances, but otherwise
provides little information unless first asked for it. But speech between controllers
and pilots also fulfils several functions more related to the disciplines of social and
personality psychology. As we shall see later, pilots and controllers make judgements
about each other based on what is said and how it is spoken.
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The teamwork reflected in communication between pilots and controllers is a critical
component of the air traffic system because it provides the system’s flexibility. Most
controllers are not pilots and most pilots are not controllers. Instead of just having
　
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