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restriction on initial radio contact associated with an
ATC communications frequency change.
4-4-13. Runway Separation
Tower controllers establish the sequence of arriving
and departing aircraft by requiring them to adjust
flight or ground operation as necessary to achieve
proper spacing. They may “HOLD” an aircraft short
of the runway to achieve spacing between it and an
arriving aircraft; the controller may instruct a pilot to
“EXTEND DOWNWIND” in order to establish
spacing from an arriving or departing aircraft. At
times a clearance may include the word “IMMEDIATE.”
For example: “CLEARED FOR
IMMEDIATE TAKEOFF.” In such cases “IMMEDIATE”
is used for purposes of air traffic separation. It
is up to the pilot to refuse the clearance if, in the pilot's
opinion, compliance would adversely affect the
operation.
REFERENCEAIM,
Gate Holding due to Departure Delays, Paragraph 4-3-15.
4-4-14. Visual Separation
a. Visual separation is a means employed by ATC
to separate aircraft in terminal areas and en route
airspace in the NAS. There are two methods
employed to effect this separation:
1. The tower controller sees the aircraft
involved and issues instructions, as necessary, to
ensure that the aircraft avoid each other.
2. A pilot sees the other aircraft involved and
upon instructions from the controller provides
separation by maneuvering the aircraft to avoid it.
When pilots accept responsibility to maintain visual
separation, they must maintain constant visual
surveillance and not pass the other aircraft until it is
no longer a factor.
NOTETraffic
is no longer a factor when during approach phase
the other aircraft is in the landing phase of flight or
executes a missed approach; and during departure or
enroute, when the other aircraft turns away or is on a
diverging course.
b. A pilot's acceptance of instructions to follow
another aircraft or provide visual separation from it is
an acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the
aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to
maintain in‐trail separation. In operations conducted
behind heavy jet aircraft, it is also an acknowledgment
that the pilot accepts the responsibility for wake
turbulence separation.
NOTEWhen
a pilot has been told to follow another aircraft or to
provide visual separation from it, the pilot should promptly
notify the controller if visual contact with the other aircraft
is lost or cannot be maintained or if the pilot cannot accept
the responsibility for the separation for any reason.
c. Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor
in collision avoidance. Pilots and copilots (or the right
seat passenger) should continuously scan to cover all
areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Pilots must
develop an effective scanning technique which
maximizes one's visual capabilities. Spotting a
potential collision threat increases directly as more
time is spent looking outside the aircraft. One must
use timesharing techniques to effectively scan the
surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments
as well.
d. Since the eye can focus only on a narrow
viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished
with a series of short, regularly spaced eye
movements that bring successive areas of the sky into
the central visual field. Each movement should not
exceed ten degrees, and each area should be observed
for at least one second to enable collision detection.
Although many pilots seem to prefer the method of
horizontal back-and-forth scanning every pilot
should develop a scanning pattern that is not only
comfortable but assures optimum effectiveness.
Pilots should remember, however, that they have a
regulatory responsibility (14 CFR Section91.113(a))
to see and avoid other aircraft when weather
conditions permit.
AIM 2/14/08
4-4-10 ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation
4-4-15. Use of Visual Clearing Procedures
a. Before Takeoff. Prior to taxiing onto a runway
or landing area in preparation for takeoff, pilots
should scan the approach areas for possible landing
traffic and execute the appropriate clearing maneuvers
to provide them a clear view of the approach
areas.
b. Climbs and Descents. During climbs and
descents in flight conditions which permit visual
detection of other traffic, pilots should execute gentle
banks, left and right at a frequency which permits
continuous visual scanning of the airspace about
them.
c. Straight and Level. Sustained periods of
　
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