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The total reaction of the aerodynamic forces
around the aerofoil can be considered to
act through the CoP
+
_
Lift
Definitions
• Centre of Gravity
The point through which the entire aircraft
weight acts
Definitions
Lift
• Lift is produced by a pressure differential
• Acts perpendicular to the relative airflow through
the centre of pressure
Weight
• Acts vertically downwards towards the centre of
the Earth
• Equal to mass x gravity
Definitions
Thrust
• Produced by the propeller through the
propeller shaft
Drag
• Opposes thrust, enemy of flight
• Parallel to the relative airflow
Definitions
• Moment
Equal to force x distance
Definitions
SUMMARY
Weight
Drag
Thrust
Lift
Principles
Couple Moments
• Caused by the interaction of the two forces
separated by a horizontal distance
Weight
Thrust Drag
Lift
T/D couple
L/W couple
Elevator down force.
Pivot Point
Principles
DRAG
Two Main types:
1. Parasite Drag
2. Induced Drag
Principles
Parasite Drag
• Skin Friction
DRAG due to FRICTION FORCES
Principles
Parasite Drag
• Skin Friction
• Form Drag
DRAG DRAG
DRAG due to FLOW SEPARATION
Principles
Parasite Drag
• Skin Friction
• Form Drag
• Interference Drag
Principles
Parasite Drag Follows the “SQUARE RULE”
Parasite
Drag
Low speed cruise High speed cruise
EXAMPLE
•If we double our
airspeed then we will
have 2 x 2 the drag
 4 Times the drag
Principles
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + + +
Low Pressure
High Pressure
VORTICES
Induced Drag
• Is a by-product
of AoA
Principles
INDUCED DRAG INCREASES WITH
DECREASING SPEED
Induced Drag
Airspeed
High AoA / Low IAS
Induced drag
Low AoA / High IAS
Induced drag
Principles
TOTAL DRAG - Summary
Slow Fast
DRAG
AIRSPEED
Induced Drag
Parasite drag
TOTAL DRAG
Minimum Drag
Best L/D Ratio
Considerations
• Stability
Displacement
Displacement
Ball
returns
STABLE
Displacement
UNSTABLE
Ball
remains
NEUTRAL
Considerations
LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
Considerations
LATERAL STABILITY
Lift
Weight
Pendulous effect of
offset lift and weight
corrects the roll.
Lift
Horizontal lift component
causes a side slip.
Relative airflow strikes the
down going wing at a higher
AoA which corrects the roll.
Considerations
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
Aerodynamic
Force
Air Exercise
• Slow Cruise
• 1800RPM + 2 fingers  80KIAS
• Normal Cruise
• 2100RPM + 4 fingers  110KIAS
• Fast Cruise
• 2300RPM + 5 fingers  120KIAS
• From Climb From Descent Monitor – Using
Attitude
Lookout
Attitude
Performance
Airmanship
• LOOKOUT
• Smooth throttle and control movements
• Correct Handover/Takeover procedure
• Monitor engine gauges
Review
Review
Slow Fast
DRAG
AIRSPEED
Induced Drag
Parasite drag
TOTAL DRAG
Minimum Drag
Best L/D Ratio
Spinning Mass Brief
Aim
• To understand the aerodynamic principles
and conditions of spinning (A condition of
stalled flight)
• Know how spins develop, and how to
recover from a fully developed spin.
Application
Overview
• Revision
• Definitions
• Principles
• Considerations
• Air Exercise
• Airmanship
Revision
Definitions
Principles
Considerations
Air Exercise
Airmanship
Steep Turns Pre Flight
By Peter Marcinczak
Objective
• To turn the aircraft at an angle of bank of
45º ± 5º or greater, whilst maintaining
height ± 100’ and remaining in balance.
Application
• An evasive manoeuvre
• A coordination exercise
Revision
• Forces in a Steep Turn
Revision
Spiral Dive
• Symptoms:
1. High and increasing IAS
2. Low nose attitude, high ROD
3. High Angle of Bank
4. High noise level
Airmanship
　
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