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warning of the impending collision?
Runway Incursions
Runway incursions are usually associated with some
form of human factors contribution (See Lesson 14). In
addition, the following factors also contribute to runway
incursion accidents:
• Weather
• Cockpit environment
• ATC environment
LAX 1991 - This aircraft was cleared to land while at the same time
a SkyWest Metroliner was cleared to taxi into position and hold on
the same runway. The 737 did not see the SkyWest plane in time to
avoid the accident. ATC error...
Aircraft Accident Investigation 24
RECORDING EQUIPMENT
Aircraft Flight Recorders
Digital Flight Data Recorders (DFDR)
The development of digital FDRs improved both data
readout and readout accuracy. The recording medium
became Mylar tape and the recording parameters suddenly
became anything on the airplane that could be
measured and reduced to digital forms. DFDRs have the
capability to record at least 62 different channels or
parameters; the number of actual parameters is almost
infinite as one channel can be used for several different
parameters. The following key items are always included
in all DFDRs:
• Time
• Altitude
• Airspeed
• Heading
• Acceleration (vertical)
• Pitch attitude
• Roll attitude
• Radio transmission keying
• Thrust / power on each engine
• Trailing edge flap or cockpit control
Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVRs)
The CVR records on Mylar tape and is much easier to
install and maintain than the FDR; thus more aircraft
are likely to have them. Most CVRs usually have a
cockpit area microphone (CAM) usually mounted on
the overhead panel between the pilots. This is meant to
record cockpit conversation not otherwise recorded
through the radio or interphone circuits. The CVR usually
has a separate channel for each flight deck crewmember
and records everything that goes through those
audio circuits. It may also have a channel for the cabin
public address (PA) system. The recording is a continuous
30 minute loop tape which automatically erases and
records over itself. At no time is there more than 30
minutes of recording available which means that events
occurring before landing (or crash) are not recorded.
Other Recording Sources
• FAA Tower and Center Radio (audio) tapes
• FAA Radar tapes
• Flight Service Station tapes
• National Weather Service radar tapes
HUMAN FACTORS
Introduction
According to Frank W. Hawkins, human factors is obviously
about people. It also concerns:
• People in their working and living environment
• A relationship between people and machines /
equipment / procedures
• People’s relationship with other people
The most appropriate definition of the applied technology
of Human Factors is that it is concerned with optimizing
the relationship between people and their activities
by the systematic application of the human sciences,
integrated within the framework of systems engineering.
The SHEL Model
In order to better understand human factors, it may be
helpful to construct a model that visually represents the
different factors associated with human factors.
The model is divided into four interfaces:
• liveware - software
• liveware - hardware
• liveware - environment
• liveware - liveware
Liveware
In the center of the model is man, or Liveware. This is
the most valuable as well as most flexible component in
the system. At the same time, man is subject to many
variations in his performance and suffers many limitations.
Areas to consider when analyzing liveware would
include:
• physical size and shape
• fuel requirements (food / water)
• Input characteristics
• Information processing
• output characteristics
Aircraft Accident Investigation 25
• environmental tolerances
Liveware - Software
The liveware-software interface encompasses the nonphysical
aspects of the system such as procedures, manual
and checklist layout, symbology, and computer programs
Liveware - Hardware
The L-H interface is one of the most commonly considered
interfaces when speaking of machine systems. This
system concerns how the human interacts with physical
hardware. Some examples might include seat design
and control positions. An item to consider in the section
is: was the device in question adapted to meet natural
human characteristics?
　
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