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for the various displays of system status
􀁸􀀃 making evident aircraft subsystem interpretation
of pilot-entered target values which depend on
active display modes
It is ever more important for pilots to remain proficient
in their manual skills as a safeguard against disaster
in the event of automation failure. Should we do
away with automation and return to manual control?
Since aircraft automation was introduced under the
guise of reduced pilot workload, it has proven to increase
workload during the critical phases of flight.
Nevertheless, some automation is necessary for efficient
aircraft operations and thus future automation
must be introduced conscientiously un order to avoid
the disasters associated with it.
FSI - HUMAN FACTORS 6
Decision Making
by Curt Lewis P.E., CSP.
The most versatile and valuable component
of the aviation system is the human
factor. Pilots, dispatchers, mechanics, and
air traffic controllers constantly make
decisions that no one else in the operation
can (or decisions that cannot be automated).
Their key role exposes pilots to
opportunities to overcome situations, to
judge and resolve daily whether any
anomaly poses a safety threat, and to err
seemingly inexplicably in judgment with
adverse consequences. Not surprisingly,
then, when accidents occur the judgment
of pilots comes directly into focus.
This article examines how pilots (and
other systems experts) tend to make decisions,
offers a contrast between your decision
making and other types of decisions,
and points towards potential lessons
learned.
How pilots tend to make decisions
When confronted with a situation which
requires a decision, pilots tend to decide
quickly and accurately. This is similar to
the strategy employed by other systems
experts such as military officers and oil
well firefighters. As soon as you encounter
the situation, you quickly come up
with a solution. You do not usually generate
and evaluate a series of alternative
actions - experts tend to formulate quickly
a single, satisfactory solution.
Gary Klein (1989) who first documented
this process in psychological literature has
described it as recognition primed decision
making. For an expert, situations
requiring a decision are not novel; they fit
categories that he or she already knows
about. All the expert has to do is categorize
the situation and apply its defined
solution. This is positive because the solutions
are almost always valid and highly
efficient - the solution works and we get
to it quickly. In fact, it probably comes
from the time constraints we face. When
an aircraft is traveling at high speed, or an
oil well fire is burning out of control, time
is of the essence. Generating and evaluating
a variety of alternative courses of actions
becomes a liability.
However, there are some exceptions or
vulnerabilities. First, experts may generalize
this strategy to situations that are not
time constrained. DO you remember from
your first officer training as a new hire
saying “When something goes wrong, the
first thing you need to do is sit on your
hands?” That statement recognizes that a
problem encountered at altitude allows
time for evaluation prior to action. It is
similar to the distinction drawn between
red-box items and completer procedures.
There are certain things we need to do
immediately and other that cannot wait
while we maintain aircraft control.
Second, experts are vulnerable when they
make decisions with limited information -
once a course of action has been selected,
they rarely revisit it when new information
comes in. Third, experts are vulnerable
to misjudgments of very low probability
situations. For example, if a thun-
Decision Making
FSI - HUMAN FACTORS 7
derstorm is in the terminal area, an expert
decision maker will evaluate the thunderstorm
and judge whether its proximity
presents a threat, deferring takeoff or
landing only if he or she believes it is a
threat. While information is limited, expert
decision making may set us up for an
error; we may need to do something else.
In contrast: deliberative decision making
When decisions are made well in other
fields, such as business, they typically fit
into what has been called expectancyvalue
theory. By this approach, when a
decision must be made, alternative course
of action are generated. The costs, benefits,
and probability, of success for each
　
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