.  
FAR 91.121 – Altimeter settings.

.  
FAR 91.123 – Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions.

.  
FAR 91.155 – Basic VFR weather minimums.

.  
FAR 91.157 – Special VFR weather minimums.

.  
FAR 91.175 – Takeoff and landing under IFR.

.  
FAR 91.185 – IFR operations: Two-way communications failure.

.  
FAR 97 – Standard Instrument Approach Procedures – Terminal Instrument Approach Procedures (TERPS).

.  
FAR 121.97 or 121.117 – Airports: Required data.

.  
FAR 121.135 – Manual Requirements – Operations Manual – Contents.

.  
FAR 121.315 – Cockpit check procedure.

.  
FAR 121.360 – Ground proximity warning – glide slope deviation alerting system.

.  
FAR 121.443 and 121.445 – Route, Special areas and airports qualification for pilot in command (PIC).

.  
FAR 121.542 – Flight crewmember duties (sterile cockpit rule).

                                                                                       Getting to Grips with                                            Approach-and-Landing Accidents Reduction

Other References
The following Flight Safety Foundation references can be used to further illustrate and complement the information contained in this Briefing Note:
.  
CFIT Education and Training Aid.

.  
CFIT Checklist – Evaluate the Risk and Take Action.

.  
ALAR Risk Awareness Tool/Checklist.

.  
ALAR Risk Reduction Planning Guide.

.  
Flight Safety Digest – Killers in Aviation – Nov.98-Feb.99.

Terrain Awareness – When and How ?
Page 11

Introduction
Visual illusions take place when conditions modify the flight crew perception of the environment relative to his / her expectations.
Visual illusions may result in landing short of the runway, hard landing or runway overrun, but also cause spatial disorientation and loss of control.
This Briefing Note provides an overview of:
.  
Factors and conditions that may cause visual illusions;

.  
How visual illusions affect the pilot’s perception of the airport / runway environment and runway; and,

.  
How to lessen the effects of visual illusions by implementing related prevention strategies and lines-of-defense in training and line operation.

Statistical Data
Visual approaches are a causal factor in 30 % of all approach-and-landing accidents and in 40 % of fatal accidents.
Visual approaches at night present a greater exposure because of reduced visual cues, increased likelihood of visual illusions and risk of spatial disorientation.
Low visibility and/or precipitations are a circumstantial factor in more than 70 % of approach-and-landing accidents, including those involving CFIT.
% of Events 
Night time  75 % 
Low visibility  70 % 
IMC  59 % 
Darkness or twilight  53 % 
　
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