.  
How do we link the information to an objective or an expectation ? and,

.  
What bias or error is introduced in this process?

Crew Resource Management (CRM) researches highlight the importance of the context and expectations in this mental process.

Human Factors in Approach and Landing Accidents
Page 2

AIRBUS INDUSTRIE
    Flight Operations Support

The following factors may affect the correct understanding of communications:
.  
High workload;

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Fatigue;

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Non-adherence to “sterile cockpit” rule;

.  
Distractions;

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Interruptions; and/or,

.  
Conflicts and pressures.

This may result in :

.  
Incomplete communications;

.  
Omission of call sign or use of an incorrect call sign;

.  
Use of nonstandard phraseology; and/or,

.  
Failure to listen or respond.

Intra-crew Communications:
Interruptions and distractions in the cockpit break the flow pattern of ongoing cockpit activities (i.e., actions or communications), such as:
.  
SOPs;

.  
Normal checklists;

.  
Communications (i.e., listening, processing, responding );

.  
Monitoring tasks; and/or,

.  
Problem solving activities.

The diverted attention resulting from the interruption or distraction usually leaves the flight crew with the feeling of being rushed and being faced with competing or preempting tasks.
Being confronted with concurrent task demands, the natural human tendency leads to performing one task to the detriment of another.
Unless mitigated by adequate techniques in order to set priorities, this disruption and lapse of attention may result in:
.  Not monitoring the flight path (possibly resulting in an altitude or course deviation or a controlled flight into terrain);
                                                                                       Getting to Grips with                                            Approach-and-Landing Accidents Reduction

.  
Missing or misinterpreting an ATC instruction (i.e., possibly resulting in a traffic conflict or runway incursion); 

.  
Omitting an action and failing to detect and correct the resulting abnormal condition or configuration, if interrupted during a normal checklist (e.g., altimeter setting); and/or,

.  
Leaving uncertainties unresolved (e.g., regarding an ATC instruction or an abnormal condition).

Altimeter setting and altitude deviation issues:
The incorrect setting of the altimeter reference often is the result of one or more of the following factors:
.  
High workload;

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Inadequate pilot/system interface;

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Incorrect pilot/controller communication;

.  
Deviation from normal task sharing;

.  
Interruptions and distractions; and/or,

.  
Absence of effective backup between crewmembers.

Strict adherence to defined task sharing (for normal or abnormal/emergency conditions) and correct use of normal checklists are the most effective lines-of-defense against altimeter setting errors.
　
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