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2.2 An Information Processing Model
Information processing can be represented as a model. This captures the main elements of the process, from receipt of information via the senses, to outputs such as decision making and actions. One such model is shown in Figure 1.
2.3 Sensory Receptors and Sensory Stores
Physical stimuli are received via the sensory receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) and stored for a very brief period of time in sensory stores (sensory memory). Visual information is stored for up to half a second in iconic memory and sounds are stored for slightly longer (up to 2 seconds) in echoic memory. This enables us to remember a sentence as a sentence, rather than merely as an unconnected string of isolated words, or a film as a film, rather than as a series of still pictures.
2.4 Attention and Perception
Having detected information, our mental resources are concentrated on specific elements - this is "attention". Although attention can move very quickly from one item to another, it can only deal with one item at a time. Attention can take the form of:
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selective attention;
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divided attention;
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focused attention;
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sustained attention.
Selective attention occurs when a person is monitoring several sources of input, with greater attention being given to one or more sources which appear more important. A person can be consciously attending to one source (e.g. the co-pilot) whilst still sampling other sources in the background (e.g. ATC transmissions). Psychologists refer to this as the 'cocktail party effect' whereby you can be engrossed in a conversation with one person but your attention is temporarily diverted if you overhear your name being mentioned at the other side of the room, even though you were not aware of listening in to other people’s conversations. Similarly, flight crew may be talking with one another, but as soon as they recognise their own callsign on the radio frequency, their attention is diverted. Distraction is the negative side of selective attention.
Figure 1 A functional model of human information processing
Divided attention is common in most work situations, where people are required to do more than one thing at the same time. Usually, one task suffers at the expense of the other, more so if they are similar in nature. This type of situation is also sometimes referred to as time sharing.
Focused attention is merely the skill of focussing one’s attention upon a single source and avoiding distraction. Cognitive 'blackholing' is the negative side of focussed attention, where attention is so focussed on one area that other important information is not noticed.
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