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Observable behaviours of teams or individuals.

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Usually structured into a set of categories.

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The categories contain sub-components that are labelled differently in various behavioural marker systems (e.g. NOTECHS: “elements“ and “markers“ = UT (LOSA): “anchors“).

2  How are behavioural markers derived?
.  From analysis of data from multiple sources regarding performance that contributes to successful and unsuccessful outcomes (e.g. accident investigation, confidential incident reporting systems, incident analysis, simulator studies, task analysis, interviews, surveys, focus groups, ethnographies).
3  What makes a good behavioural marker?
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It describes a specific, observable behaviour, not an attitude or personality trait, with clear definition (enactment of skills or knowledge is shown in behaviour).

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It has demonstrated a causal relationship to performance outcome.

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It does not have to be present in all situations.

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Its appropriateness depends on context.

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It uses domain specific language that reflects the operational environment.

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It employs simple phraseology.

. It describes a clear concept. 4 What are the domains of application?
Behavioural markers can be used in any domain where behaviour relating to job performance can be observed. However, they are expensive to develop and utilise given the level of training and calibration required for users. At present, they tend to be found in occupations where safety is prime and high fidelity simulators are used for training and assessment, e.g. in aviation, nuclear power generation, military settings, and, to a lesser degree, in medicine (anaesthesia and surgery), where simulation is less widely employed.
5  What are the uses of behavioural markers?
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To enable performance measurement for training and assessment, evaluation of training, safety management, and research.

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To highlight positive examples of performance.

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To provide a common vocabulary for training, briefing and debriefing, communication, regulation, research, and to connect different domains of safety

(e.g. incident analysis and performance tracking).

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To build performance databases to identify norms and prioritise training needs.

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To compare sub-groups in organisations (e.g. aircraft fleets, etc.).

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To give feedback on performance at individual, team, organisational, and system levels.

. To establish co-operation between safety/quality, training, and operations. 6 What are characteristics of good behavioural marker systems?
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Validity: in relation to performance outcome.

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Reliability: inter-rater reliability, internal consistency.
　
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