2.3 Non-verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication can accompany verbal communication, such as a smile during a face-to-face chat. It may constitute acknowledgement or feedback (e.g. a nod of the head). It can also be used when verbal communication is impossible, such as a thumbs-up in a noisy environment.
Body language can be very subtle, but often quite powerful. For example, the message “No” accompanied by a smile will be interpreted quite differently from the same word said whilst the sender scowls.
Non-verbal communication may also take the form of written information or notes, between pilots or flight-deck and cabin crew.
Future ground-air communications are increasingly more likely to be non-verbal as data link technology and associated procedures gradually replaces oral/aural RTF communications between ATC and pilots. As mentioned above, this is not addressed in any detail in this document.
Non-verbal communication is the predominant manner by which systems communicate their status. For instance, most displays in the aircraft cockpit present their information graphically. However, man-machine interface issues are not covered in this document.

2.4 Communication Problems
There are two main ways in which communication can cause problems. These are lack of communication and poor communication. An example of the former is a young first officer who is very IT-literate, who is engrossed with programming the FMS but doesn't explain to the less-IT-literate Captain what he is doing. An example of the latter is a flight deck crew who advise the cabin crew that there will be a precautionary emergency landing, but fail to tell them not to evacuate the cabin. Both problems can lead to subsequent human error.
Communication also goes wrong when one of the parties involved makes some kind of assumption. The sender of a message may assume that the receiver understands the terms he has used. The receiver of a message may assume that the message means one thing when in fact he has misinterpreted it. Assumptions may be based on context and expectations, which have already been mentioned in this Appendix.
Problems with assumptions can be minimised if messages are unambiguous and proper feedback is given.
There are several hazards which reduce the quality of communications:
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failures during the transmitting process (e.g. the sending of unclear or ambiguous messages, language problems);

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difficulties caused by the medium of transmission (e.g. background noises or distortion of the information);

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failures during receiving (e.g. the expectation of another message, wrong interpretation of the arriving message or even its disregard);

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failures due to interference between the rational and emotional levels of communication (e.g. arguments); and

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physical problems in listening or speaking (e.g. impaired hearing or wearing of the oxygen mask).
　
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