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human
beings:
Figure 1: Automated systems and human beings in unpredicted situations
This creativity is especially important in sectors, where unexpected occurrences, which lead
to failures, endanger the life of people. Besides aircrafts as mentioned above, trains, (nuclear)
power plants and chemical industries can serve as excellent examples, where errors result in a
large number of casualties.
Knowing on the other hand that humans also are one of the biggest weaknesses in any system,
a new approach towards error handling in critical environments has to be put forward. This
approach must combine human-centred information processing with a learning system and
encourage the creativity of the operator.
Human-centred Information Processing
Human-centred Information Processing is a sub-element of human-centred Design. It does not
refer to an ergonomic working environment or the placement of switches and dials, but is
about gathering, processing and especially displaying information. A working system must
inform the operator about the most crucial issues at any moment. In a car, the driver might be
warned about going too fast, about being to close to the car in front or similar information.
However, only a very few items of information must be displayed at one time, since human
beings have a limited capability of processing information.
Despite this, the operator has to be able to easily access any available data even if the system
does not consider it crucial. All this implies a very electronic approach towards the display of
Occuring Error
Automated
System
Human Being
anticipated?
Yes No
Experiences
and
Impressions
Programmer anticipated? Trainings
Yes No
Creati
-
solve
d
solve
d
Chanc
e for
Solution
Human-centred Error Handling
Page 5 of 8
data, Therefore a mechanical backup system for the most crucial information must be
designed besides a redundant electronic system, especially in environments, where the lives of
a large number of people are at stake.
Human-centred design furthermore accepts the human as being more intelligent than the
machine, allowing him or her to interfere with and change decisions made by the automated
system to obtain manual control at any time. This idea is put forward despite the fact that
technology may educate humans and stop them from taking irresponsible actions. Limiting
the speed of a car to the maximum allow speed could serve as example. In this example it
seems to be appropriate to not allow the operator to circumvent the restriction imposed by the
system. For error handling it is however crucial to trust the operator and instead of forbidding
the desired action to strongly visually and/or acoustically warn him or her that the system
considers an action better not to be taken or proceeded.
Human-centred information processing in this sense means providing the necessary
information while leaving the final decision the operator in case he or she disagrees with the
system.
Learning Systems
The requirements for the system’s approach toward the operator have been outlined above.
Giving the operator the chance to intervene nevertheless does not mean that the system should
not be able to handle as many situations as possible. To achieve this goal, the automated
system must learn from the operator’s actions and allow updating to make use of the
experience of equal systems in other unpredicted situations.
While the given example with the Airbus trying to land is not the best to illustrate this, it will
still help clarify the idea behind it.
After the accident we learnt two crucial technical lessons:
1. Not allowing stopping was rather bad an idea of the system.
2. If you cannot stop and you are running toward a wall, turn sideways to use the wing as
buffering zone!
Lesson one is quite unexciting since it has been explored in this essay before, that humans
should always be able to circumvent the automated system. Lesson two on the other hand
Human-centred Error Handling
Page 6 of 8
directly refers to a possible learning process of the automated system. Of course the board
system should not take an action like turning the aircraft in the case of emergency by itself. It
should however explore the situation and environment and suggest the pilot to take that
action. In many other cases, the learning process should on the other hand lead to direct
actions of the automated system. This can be illustrated with the very similar case of a car
breaking suddenly right in front of another car. The following car should automatically start
the breaking process to save vital fractions of a second, instead of only displaying a warning
　
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