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and the suggestion that breaking might be a good idea.
Creativity
The third aspect that has to be regarded in the context of humans in error handling is the
creativity. Creativity is the process of combining past experiences and impressions in a yet
unknown way and applying them to a new situation.
In the example of our pilot trying to land in Warsaw, childhood experiences of cart racing
combined with seeing a crash test of a car might have brought up the idea of turning the
aircraft in that very moment. Of course this is pure speculation and most unlikely to be close
to reality but the point remains that experiences that are completely unrelated with the
situation resulted in a solution to a otherwise fatal problem.
Defining creativity the way done above also shows very clearly why computers are as for now
not able to go through a creative process for problem solving. The experiences and
impressions needed cannot be put into a database because they have in common that they are
not related to the current situation. Such a database would have to trace peoples’ lives and try
to store everything happening: from movements when sailing a sailing boat to a comment of
the first girlfriend. All this might eventually be useful in a dangerous situation in the future.
This said it is obvious that humans cannot be replaced in places where error handling is the
most important task.
Apart from the experiences another factor influencing the creativity and especially the speed
of the creative process is the motivation and alertness of the operator. This takes us to a
conflict to be further discussed in the following.
Human-centred Error Handling
Page 7 of 8
The Challenge of Keeping the Balance
Let us take a look at the above described triangle of human-centred information processing,
learning systems and creativity: It becomes clear that the impact of increasing automation
through learning systems on creativity has to be explored more closely.
While each task, which can be taken over by an automated system, will generally decrease the
failure rate due to a decrease in the possibility of human mistakes being made, taking away
tasks from the operator will as well decrease his or her attention and motivation.
Humans need to be challenged and alerted from time to time to not lose the ability to react in
the case of emergency. With automated systems taking over more and more operations and
leaving only error handling to the operator, it is more difficult for him or her to fulfil this
critical task.
Figure 2: Conflict between a learning system and the need for creativity in the triangle of
human-centred error handling
This thought brings up the question of how to keep up the alert and motivation of the operator
while decreasing the error rate by applying learning systems.
In the process of restructuring the port of Hamburg, this question was answered by leaving
actions that could have been taking over by automated systems to operators. This way the
operators would be alert at any time and can follow the processes happening more easily since
they are actually shaping them at their own speed.
This approach is one of finding the right spot on the range between automation through
learning systems and supporting creativity by leaving tasks to the operator. However this is
H-C
Error
Handlin
Creativit
y
Learning Systems
Human-centred
Information Processing
Human-centred Error Handling
Page 8 of 8
only possible, if the human errors that can occur in the tasks are unlikely to have a great
impact or be fatal.
Real answers to this question are not within the scope of this essay and it hence needs further
investigation. Frequent trainings of the operators that reproduce situations, which normally
would be handled by the system, might be one way to deal with the issue but also off topic
creativity trainings and new challenges at the working place could contribute to a solution.
INDIVIDUALISM IN DIFFERENT CULTURES
SĐBEL SÖZÜER
Department of Industrial Engineering
Bilkent University
Ankara, TURKEY
sozuer@ug.bilkent.edu.tr
Keywords: individualism, collectivism, cultural differences, Hofstede’s dimensions, national
culture
Abstract: This essay gives an overview about the issue of individualism and collectivism.
Individualism in different cultures are discussed by comparing Hofstede’s and Smith’s scores
with SAC Budapest 2007 participants’ scores. Individualist characteristics of 3 Europian
countries and Turkey are evaluated with concrete examples by the local people. Also the role of
individualism in business is considered in this essay.
　
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