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annotated the charts. We soon discovered that by airline
policy, the charts belong to the airplane, not to the pilot, and
pilots are specifically prohibited from adding annotation to
charts.
PRINCIPLES OF ADAPTATION IN THE ECOLOGY OF
LANGUAGE USE
A foundational assumption for this work is that the language
ecology in the flight deck is grounded in the wider ecology of
language use in the everyday lives of the pilots. Flight deck
language is seen by pilots as “specialized” because it departs
from the everyday practices of native language use. Our
working hypothesis is that when a pilot-generated linguistic
representation must be coordinated with other representations
that are constrained by exogenous factors to be in English,
then the pilot is likely to use English. When a pilot-generated
linguistic representation is not constrained by relations to
English language representations, it is likely to be in the
pilot’s native language. The use of native language
representations is especially likely if the pilot must use them
while reasoning about complex meanings.
CONCLUSION
This paper is a part of the series of studies on flight deck
culture in worldwide airlines. Our ethnographic study
investigates the ecology of language practices in Japanese
airlines. In Japanese airlines, most utterances in the flight deck
are produced in Japanese. English is used only for
communication with ATC, reading text that arrives in the
flight deck in English, and some technical call-outs. In spoken
language, the switching between Japanese and English may
appear chaotic, but there are powerful regularities underlying
the mix. The same is true for written annotations on paper
documents. To achieve intersubjective understanding between
pilots, Japanese pilots engage in a number of practices that
make English less foreign. They create new aviation terms by
applying Japanese conventions for abbreviation to aviation
English technical terms, they read aloud to each other from
checklists written in English using Japanese phonemes, and
they hold English-language paper checklists in each others’
line of sight to make the written representation available in
addition to the spoken representation when doing the
checklist. Institutional practices also acknowledge the
challenge of processing foreign language; critical numbers on
ACARS printout such as gross weight are printed on the
paperwork both as numeral and as English words, and so forth.
In the coming year we expect to be able to make field visits to
at least three more airlines in Oceania and Asia. We intend
to further explore the full range of patterns of language use.
The distribution of exogenous factors creates a number of
natural experiments in the global aviation system. For
example, as aircraft cross international borders, it is often the
case that a single independent variable – e.g., language used
for ATC – changes. There are also many cases in which two
or more airlines representing two or more different languages
and cultures fly the same model of aircraft on the very same
international routes. Parallel observations in these settings
may allow us to better differentiate the roles of various factors
in the organization of the language use ecology.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by contract from the Boeing
Commercial Airplanes Group.
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