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operations manuals, personally made annotations on other
documents, and notes of ATC clearances.
Flight safety depends on the effective propagation and
transformation of linguistic representations both among and
within operators [3]. The use of multiple languages and
especially languages that are not fully mastered may therefore
affect the safety and efficiency of flight operations [1].
Language use practices are simultaneously cognitive and
consequential.
The English language plays a special role in the global
aviation system. English is the official language of
worldwide ATC1 and is the language that both major airframe
1 In France, however, French speaking pilots speak to
controllers in French. Controllers speak English to non-
French speaking crews flying in the same airspace. The
same pattern holds in Mexico. In these nations, foreign
manufacturers use for labels on controls and indicators
(knobs, switches, dials, lights) as well as text on displays
(PFD, ND, CDU, future communication panel) and
descriptive documentation (Aircraft flight operations manual
(FOM) for example). Checklists and procedures are part of
this ecology. However, many (perhaps the majority) of pilots
and controllers working in the global commercial aviation
system are not native speakers of English. Thus, a
significant fraction of flight operations worldwide are
conducted in conditions that require the integration of English
language representations with representations in other
languages. In this paper we will describe the language
practices of pilots as situated in this complex ecology.
METHODS
We are now in the early stages of a worldwide investigation
of the roles of language and culture in commercial airline
flight deck (cockpit) operations. Our ethnographic data
collection procedures include the observation of airline pilots
in revenue flight and in high fidelity simulators, and
interviews with pilots and other airline personnel. From the
observer’s seat in the flight deck, we take extensive written
notes, capture digital still images, and collect copies of all of
the flight paperwork. These data are subsequently integrated
into hyperlinked field notes. Video data from the flight
simulator are transcribed and the micro-scale language and
culture practices are documented. This research involves
many challenges. Access to flight decks is difficult to
obtain, and in fact, we have not been able to make
observations in America since September 11, 2001.
Furthermore, the interpretation of the behavior of any airline
pilot requires a wealth of technical knowledge about aircraft
and airline operations. Understanding and interpreting
patterns of behavior of pilots from other cultures requires a
deep knowledge of the language and culture involved.
Fortunately we have been able to assemble a research team
that includes technical pilots and human factors specialists
from Boeing in addition to a cognitive anthropologist.
pilots who do not speak the national language are denied the
situation awareness that comes from monitoring party-line
communications.
Our work with Japanese airlines has included an expert on
Japanese language and culture. To date the project has
collected data on three non-US airlines in three field trips to
Japan and one to Oceania. Our research team has observed
more than 60 segments of revenue flight and has recorded
more than 40 hours of video data in flight simulators. For
this report, we also draw on 12 years of flight deck
observations in North America (1989 – 2001) and on a small
number of additional observations in Europe and Latin
America.
EXOGENOUS FACTORS IN LANGUAGE ECOLOGY
The ecology of language use, as it is experienced by the
pilots, is shaped by many factors that originate outside the
flight deck. Virtually all airline pilots must deal with some
English language materials. How much English they
encounter and how foreign the English language appears to
them varies considerably around the globe.
Policies of Nations
National education programs and language practices at the
societal level may produce entire societies that are
multilingual (Scandinavia, for example) or conversely, may
produce effectively mono-lingual societies (much of the
native-born US, for example). It is clear that English is, on
average, more foreign for some pilot populations than it is for
others. English is more foreign to Mexicans than to Swedes
or Dutch (as a result of education policies and societal
language practices), and probably more foreign to Japanese
than to Mexicans (as a result of the Japanese language being
　
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