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VIII. Cyber-Terrorism
As far back as in March 1998, the web site of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States received a ‘denial of service’ attack, calculated to affect Microsoft Windows NT and Windows 95 operating systems.41
These attacks prevented servers from answering network connections; crashed computers, causing a blue screen to appear on the computers. The attacked systems were revived, but this attack was a follow up of one in February of the same year, when, for two weeks the US Defence Department had unclassi.ed networks penetrated, where hackers accessed personnel and payroll information.
Cyber-terrorism has the advantage of anonymity, which enables the hacker to obviate checkpoints or any physical evidence being traceable to him or her. It is a low budget form of terrorism where the only costs entailed in interfering with the computer programs of an air transport system would be those pertaining to the right computer equipment.
Any interference with air transport, which would be inextricably linked to the purpose of international civil aviation as enunciated in the Preamble to the Chicago
40Wagner et al. (2006).
Bio
surveillance
is
the
science
of
real-time
disease
outbreak
detection.
Its
principles apply to both natural and man-made epidemics (bioterrorism). It is worthy of note that in addition to activity in this .eld in the United States, there is also work being done in Europe, where disease surveillance is beginning to be organized on a continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergencies. The system not only monitors infected persons, but also attempts to discern the origin of the outbreak.
41http://mgrossmanlaw.com/articles/1999.
C. Emerging Threats 25
Convention which categorically states that the future development of international civil aviation can greatly help to create and preserve friendship and understanding among the nations and people of the world, yet, its abuse can become a threat to the general security.
The maintenance of international peace and security is an important objective of the United Nations,42
which recognizes one of its purposes as being inter alia:
To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace.43

It is clear that the United Nations has recognized the application of the principles of international law as an integral part of maintaining international peace and security and avoiding situations which may lead to a breach of the peace.
Manuela Guill, a leading expert in threat assessment says:
Cyber-terrorism can be used in many ways. In its simplest form, it can be used as a means of disinformation or psychological warfare by manipulating media attention regarding possi-ble threats, thus causing disruption to airport and aircraft operations. This could result in the reluctance of persons to travel which, in turn, could affect the economies of nations dependent on the movement of air passengers. In its most serious form, cyber-terrorism could lead to fatalities, injuries and major damage at airports and to aircraft in .ight.44

The particularity of cyber-terrorism is that the threat is enhanced by globalization and the ubiquity of the Internet. It is a global problem in search of a global solution.
IX. MANPADS
Since the events of 11 September 2001, there have been several attempts against the security of aircraft in .ight through the misuse of Man Portable Air Defense Systems (MANPADS). The threat of MANPADS to aviation security is by far the most ominous and the international aviation community has made some efforts through ICAO. In recent years, Man Portable Air Defense Systems (MANPADS) have posed a serious threat to aviation security.
　
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