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Chapter 2 Principles of Responsibility
A. State Responsibility
There are various offences that can be perpetrated by private individuals or groups of individuals against civil aviation, the earliest common species of which was hijacking of aircraft. Hijacking, in the late 1960s started an irreversible trend which was dramatised by such incidents as the skyjacking by Shiite terrorists of the TWA .ight 847 in June 1985. The skyjacking of Egypt Air .ight 648 in November the same year and the skyjacking of a Kuwait Airways Airbus in 198475
are other early examples of this offence. Aviation sabotage, where explosions on the ground or in mid air destroy whole aircraft, their passengers and crew, is also a threat coming through the past decades. The Air India .ight 182 over the Irish Sea in June 1985, PAN AM .ight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988, and the UTA explosion over Niger in 1989 are examples. Missile attacks,76
where aircraft are destroyed by surface to air missiles (SAM) have also occurred as early as in the 1970s. The destructions of the two Viscount aircraft of Air Rhodesia in late 1978 / early 1979 are examples of this offence. A re-emerging threat, namely armed attacks at air-ports, shows early occurrence in instances where terrorists opened .re in congested areas in the airport terminals. Examples of this type of terrorism are: The June 1972 attack by the Seikigunha (Japanese Red Army) at Ben Gurion Airport, Tel Aviv; The August 1973 attack by Arab gunmen on Athens Airport; and the 1985 attacks on Rome and Vienna Airports; Finally, the illegal carriage by air of narcotics and other psychotropic substances and crimes related thereto such as the seizure of or damage to aircraft, persons and property is also a threat that cannot be ignored in the present context, although, like other examples cited, it has been a perennial issue.
　
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