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category that can cause a pilot to ignore all the other risk
factors. External pressures put time-related pressure on the
pilot and figure into a majority of accidents.
The use of personal standard operating procedures (SOPs) is
one way to manage external pressures. The goal is to supply a
release for the external pressures of a flight. These procedures
include but are not limited to:
• Allow time on a trip for an extra fuel stop or to make
an unexpected landing because of weather.
• Have alternate plans for a late arrival or make backup
airline reservations for must-be-there trips.
• For really important trips, plan to leave early enough
so that there would still be time to drive to the
destination.
• Advise those who are waiting at the destination that
the arrival may be delayed. Know how to notify them
when delays are encountered.
• Manage passengers’ expectations. Make sure
passengers know that they might not arrive on a firm
schedule, and if they must arrive by a certain time,
they should make alternative plans.
9-8
To maintain situational awareness, an accurate perception
must be attained of how the pilot, aircraft, environment,
and external pressures combine to affect the flight.
Situation
RISK ELEMENTS
Environment Aircraft Pilot External Pressures
Factors such as weather and
airport conditions must be
examined.
The aircraft performance,
limitations, equipment, and
airworthiness must be deter-
mined.
The purpose of the flight is a
factor that influences the pilot’s
decision to begin or continue
the flight.
The pilot’s fitness to fly must
be evaluated, including competency in the aircraft, currency,
and flight experience.
Figure 9-4. One of the most important decisions that the pilot in command must make is the go/no-go decision. Evaluating each of these
risk elements can help the pilot decide whether a flight should be conducted or continued.
• Eliminate pressure to return home, even on a casual
day flight, by carrying a small overnight kit containing
prescriptions, contact lens solutions, toiletries, or other
necessities on every flight.
The key to managing external pressure is to be ready for
and accept delays. Remember that people get delayed when
traveling on airlines, driving a car, or taking a bus. The pilot’s
goal is to manage risk, not create hazards.
During each flight, decisions must be made regarding events
involving interactions between the four risk elements—PIC,
aircraft, environment, and external pressures. The decisionmaking process involves an evaluation of each of these risk
elements to achieve an accurate perception of the flight
situation. [Figure 9-4]
Three-P Model for Pilots
Risk management is a decision-making process designed to
perceive hazards systematically, assess the degree of risk
associated with a hazard, and determine the best course of
action (see Appendix F). For example, the Perceive, Process,
Perform (3P) model for aeronautical decision-making (ADM)
offers a simple, practical, and structured way for pilots to
manage risk. [Figure 9-5]
To use the 3P model, the pilot:
• Perceives the given set of circumstances for a flight.
• Processes by evaluating the impact of those
circumstances on flight safety.
• Performs by implementing the best course of action.
In the first step, the goal is to develop situational awareness
by perceiving hazards, which are present events, objects, or
circumstances that could contribute to an undesired future
event. In this step, the pilot systematically identifies and
lists hazards associated with all aspects of the flight: pilot,
aircraft, environment, and external pressures. It is important
to consider how individual hazards might combine. Consider,
for example, the hazard that arises when a new instrument
pilot with no experience in actual instrument conditions wants
to make a cross-country flight to an airport with low ceilings
in order to attend an important business meeting.
In the second step, the goal is to process this information to
determine whether the identified hazards constitute risk, which
is defined as the future impact of a hazard that is not controlled
or eliminated. The degree of risk posed by a given hazard
can be measured in terms of exposure (number of people or
resources affected), severity (extent of possible loss), and
probability (the likelihood that a hazard will cause a loss).
　
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