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complex procedure and assists each student in reaching the
learning outcomes while helping the student build self-esteem
and confidence. [Figure 2-1]
The Framework for Learning
Research into how people learn gained momentum with the
Swiss scientist and psychologist Jean Piaget, who studied the
intellectual development of children in the early twentieth
century. [Figure 2-2] His studies influenced others to
research not only how people learn, but also the best ways
to teach them, leading eventually to the establishment of the
field of educational psychology.
Learning Theory
Learning theory is a body of principles advocated by
psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire
skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Various branches of learning
theory are used in formal training programs to improve and
accelerate the learning process. Key concepts such as desired
learning outcomes, objectives of the training, and depth
of training also apply. When properly integrated, learning
principles can be useful to aviation instructors and developers
of instructional programs for both pilots and AMTs.
2-3
Figure 2-3. Psychologists and educators who established the early
theories of cognitive learning.
Figure 2-2. Jean Piaget, Swiss scientist and psychologist.
Many psychologists and educators have attempted to explain
how people learn. While variations abound, modern learning
theories grew out of two concepts of how people learn:
behaviorism and cognitive theory.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a school of psychology that explains animal
and human behavior entirely in terms of observable and
measurable responses to stimuli. Behaviorism was introduced
in the early twentieth century and its followers believed all
human behavior is conditioned more or less by events in the
environment. Thus, human behavior can be predicted based
on past rewards and punishments. Classic behaviorist theory
in education stressed a system of rewards and punishment
or the “carrot and stick” approach to learning. In modern
education circles, behaviorism stresses the importance of
having a particular form of behavior positively reinforced by
someone (other than the learner) who shapes or controls what
is learned rather than no reinforcement or punishment. In
aviation training, the instructor provides the reinforcement.
Although the popular therapeutic system of behavior
modification has emerged from this theory, behaviorism
is now used more to break unwanted behaviors, such as
smoking, than in teaching. The popularity of behaviorism
has waned due to research that indicates learning is a much
more complex process than a response to stimuli. Humans,
far from being passive products of experience, are always
actively interacting with the environment.
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory focuses on what is going on inside the
mind. It is more concerned with cognition (the process of
thinking and learning)—knowing, perceiving, problem-
solving, decision-making, awareness, and related intellectual
activities—than with stimulus and response. Learning is not
just a change in behavior; it is a change in the way a learner
thinks, understands, or feels. Theories based on cognition
are concerned with the mental events of the learner. Much
of the recent psychological thinking and experimentation in
education includes some facets of the cognitive theory.
Early theories of cognitive learning were established by
psychologists and educators such as John Dewey, Jean Piaget,
Benjamin Bloom, and Jerome Bruner. [Figure 2-3] Over
the past century, there have been many interpretations of
the increasingly large amount of research data dealing with
cognitive theories. This has led to many different models for
learning as well as catch phrases.
For example, educator, psychologist, and philosopher, John
Dewey introduced the concept “reflective thought” in a
1910 book designed for teachers. Dewey believed learning
improves to the degree that it arises out of the process of
reflection. Over the years, terminology describing reflection
has spawned a host of synonyms, such as “critical thinking,”
“problem-solving,” and “higher level thought.”
For Dewey, the concept of reflective thought carried deep
meaning. He saw reflection as a process that moves a learner
from one experience into the next with deeper understanding
of its relationships with and connections to other experiences
and ideas. Thus, reflection leads the learner from the unclear
　
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