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memorized facts gives way to understanding.
Understanding develops when students begin to organize
known facts and steps into coherent groups that come together
to form an understanding of how a thing or a process works.
For example, after learning to adjust the mixture control in
cruise flight, Beverly learns that combustion requires a certain
mixture of fuel and air, and that air becomes less dense as
altitude increases.
Combining these two ideas, she now understands the purpose
of the mixture control is to keep these two quantities in
balance as the aircraft changes altitude. “Mental model”
or self-explanation is often used to refer to an organized
2-10
Figure 2-7. E. L. Thorndike (1874–1949).
they can also make it difficult to retain new information that
does not conform to established schemas.
Thorndike and the Laws of Learning
One of the pioneers of educational psychology, E.L.
Thorndike formulated three laws of learning in the early 20th
century. [Figure 2-7] These laws are universally accepted and
apply to all kinds of learning: the law of readiness, the law
of exercise, and the law of effect. Since Thorndike set down
his laws, three more have been added: the law of primacy,
the law of intensity, and the law of recency.
Readiness
The basic needs of the learner must be satisfied before he or
she is ready or capable of learning (see Chapter 1, Human
Behavior). The instructor can do little to motivate the learner
if these needs have not been met. This means the learner must
want to learn the task being presented and must possess the
requisite knowledge and skill. In SBT, the instructor attempts
to make the task as meaningful as possible and to keep it
within the learner’s capabilities.
Students best acquire new knowledge when they see a clear
reason for doing so, often show a strong interest in learning
what they believe they need to know next, and tend to set
aside things for which they see no immediate need. For
example, beginning flight students commonly ignore the
flight instructor’s suggestion to use the trim control. These
students believe the control yoke is an adequate way to
manipulate the aircraft’s control surfaces. Later in training,
when they must divert their attention away from the controls
to other tasks, they realize the importance of trim.
Instructors can take two steps to keep their students in a state
of readiness to learn. First, instructors should communicate a
clear set of learning objectives to the student and relate each
facts because instead of literally describing one thing, they
describe many things at once.
For example, a new flight student who sees several examples
of weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft may formulate a
category for WSC aircraft based on the wing, which is large
and fabric covered. The power of the category becomes
obvious when the student sees a sport plane. Because of
the similar wing, he or she immediately categorizes it as an
ultra light and ascribes many of the properties of ultra light
aircraft to the sport plane. In this way, the student has used a
generalized concept to begin understanding something new.
Most learners exhibit a natural tendency to categorize and
become adept at recognizing members of most any category
they create. If something is encountered that does not fit
into a category, these learners formulate a new category or
revise the definitions of existing categories. In the above
example, the student eventually must revise the category
of ultra light to light-sport aircraft which encompasses
both types of aircraft. Therefore, an important part of the
learning process is continual revision of the categories used
when learners encounter new things or exceptions to things
previously catalogued.
Another type of generalization is a schema (the cognitive
framework that helps people organize and interpret
information). Schemas can be revised by any new information
and are useful because they allow people to take shortcuts in
interpreting a vast amount of information.
Humans form schemas when they notice reoccurring
patterns in things frequently observed or done. Schemas
help learners interpret things they observe by priming
them to expect certain elements that match the schema. For
example, schemas demonstrate why an experienced pilot is
able to listen to and read back a lengthy departure clearance
issued by air traffic control (ATC). Beginning flight students
often remember the controller’s use of the words “the” and
　
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