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an event would occur. She has some good ideas but he asks
her to think more about before her next lesson. On her next
lesson he gives her the same exercise. This time her answers
are consistent and insightful. Bill decides that this scenario
has served its purpose and moves on.
During their next flight, Bill’s objective is having Beverly
recall and carry out the steps that she was able to cite in
the classroom. As they arrive at their home airport, he
presents Beverly with a low-fuel scenario. He notes that
she remembers much of what she was able to recall in the
classroom, but amidst the excitement, has forgotten a few
things. He uses the same scenario at a different airport on
their next flight, and she performs admirably.
Later in her training, Bill’s next objective is to enable her
to recall and perform the emergency steps in concert with
other piloting duties. They depart on a cross-country flight
from a populated area to a remote area. While en route,
Bill presents Beverly with a low-fuel emergency scenario
knowing that there is only one airport nearby and that it is not
easy to spot. She successfully uses her available navigational
resources to locate and arrive at the airport. Upon returning
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home, Bill attempts to generalize her new abilities and put
yet a different spin on the same problem. He presents the
low-fuel scenario, taking advantage of the fact that there are
eight nearby airports. All of the airports are in plain view,
and she must choose one.
Each of these scenarios taught Beverly something she needed
to learn next, and made good use of the surroundings and
available circumstances. As these examples illustrate, there
is no list of “canned” scenarios that can be used for all
students. Instructors must learn to devise their own scenarios
by considering what each student needs to practice, and
exploiting features of the local environment that allow them
to do it.
The Learning Route to Expertise
What does it take to successfully orchestrate all of the
knowledge and skills the student has learned into what
instructors, evaluators, and other pilots and mechanics would
regard as true expertise? All evidence seems to point once
again to the idea of practice. Just as the perfection of an
individual skill seems to rely on repeated practice, so does
the combination of knowledge and skills that make up our
abilities to do the real-world job of pilot or mechanic.
How much practice does it take to become a true expert? In
a study of expert performers in fields ranging from science
to music to chess, one psychologist found that no performer
had reached true expertise without having invested at least
ten years of practice in his or her field. Experts have been
found to use two tools to help them gain expertise in their
field: cognitive strategies and problem-solving tactics.
Cognitive Strategies
The idea of cognitive strategies emerged over 50 years ago
in the context of human information processing theory.
Cognitive strategies refer to the knowledge of procedures or
knowledge about how to do something in contrast with the
knowledge of facts. They use the mind to solve a problem
or complete a task and provide a structure for learning
that actively promotes the comprehension and retention of
knowledge. A cognitive strategy helps the learner develop
internal procedures that enable him or her to perform higher
level operations.
As students acquire experience, they develop their own
strategies for dealing with problems that arise frequently.
For example, a student develops the following strategy for
avoiding inadvertent flight into instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC) at night. He or she checks the weather prior
to departure, obtains updates on the weather every hour, and
plans to divert to an alternate destination at the first suspicion
of unexpected weather ahead.
One approach to helping students develop cognitive strategies
is to study and identify the strategies that experts use and
then teach these strategies to the students. Expert strategies
were identified by researchers who presented experts with
problems to solve and asked them to think aloud as they
attempted to solve the problems. These cognitive strategies
can be taught to students, usually with successful results.
Problem-Solving Tactics
Problem-solving tactics are specific actions intended to get
a particular result, and this type of knowledge represents the
most targeted knowledge in the expert’s arsenal. For example,
　
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