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inputs.
Associative Stage
Even demonstrating how to do something does not result
in the student learning the skill. Practice is necessary in
order for the student to learn how to coordinate muscles
with visual and tactile senses. Learning to perform various
aircraft maintenance skills or flight maneuvers requires
practice. Another benefit of practice is that as the student
gains proficiency in a skill, verbal instructions become more
meaningful. A long, detailed explanation is confusing before
the student begins performing, whereas specific comments
are more meaningful and useful after the skill has been
partially mastered.
As the storage of a skill via practice continues, the student
learns to associate individual steps in performance with
likely outcomes. The student no longer performs a series
of memorized steps, but is able to assess his or her progress
along the way and make adjustments in performance.
Performing the skill still requires deliberate attention, but
the student is better able to deal with distractions.
For example, Beverly enters the steep turn and again struggles
to achieve the desired bank angle. Still working on the bank
angle, she remembers the persistent altitude control problem
and glances at the altimeter. Noticing that the aircraft has
descended almost 100 feet, she increases back pressure on
the control and adjusts the trim slightly. She goes back to
a continuing struggle with the bank angle, keeping it under
control with some effort, and completes the turn 80 feet
higher than started.
Automatic Response Stage
Automaticity is one of the by-products of practice. As
procedures become automatic, less attention is required
to carry them out, so it is possible to do other things
simultaneously, or at least do other things more comfortably.
By this stage, student performance of the skill is rapid and
smooth. The student devotes much less deliberate attention
2-21
Percentage of Correct Performances
70
60
50
40
Periods of Practice
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Plateau
Figure 2-17. Students will probably experience a learning plateau
at some point in their training.
to performance, and may be able to carry on a conversation
or perform other tasks while performing the skill. The student
makes far fewer adjustments during his or her performance
and these adjustments tend to be small. The student may
no longer be able to remember the individual steps in the
procedure, or explain how to perform the skill.
For example, the student smoothly increases power, back
pressure on the yoke, and trim as a turn is entered. During
the turn, the instructor questions the student on an unrelated
topic. The student answers the questions, while making two
small adjustments in pitch and trim, and then rolls out of the
turn with the altimeter centered on the target altitude. Noting
the dramatically improved performance, the instructor asks
“What are you doing differently?” The student seems unsure
and says, “I have developed a feel for it.”
Knowledge of Results
In learning some simple skills, students can discover their
own errors quite easily. In other cases, such as learning
complex aircraft maintenance skills, flight maneuvers, or
flight crew duties, mistakes are not always apparent. A
student may know that something is wrong, but not know
how to correct it. In any case, the instructor provides a
helpful and often critical function in making certain that the
students are aware of their progress. It is perhaps as important
for students to know when they are right as when they are
wrong. They should be told as soon after the performance
as possible, and should not be allowed to practice mistakes.
It is more difficult to unlearn a mistake, and then learn the
skill correctly, than to learn correctly in the first place. One
way to make students aware of their progress is to repeat a
demonstration or example and to show them the standards
their performance must ultimately meet.
How To Develop Skills
Theories about how a skill evolves from the awkward and
deliberate performance associated with the cognitive stage to
the smooth and steady-handed performance of the automatic
response stage have one thing in common: progress appears
to depend on repeated practice. Making progress toward
automating a skill seems to be largely a matter of performing
the skill over and over again. In skill learning, the first trials
are slow and coordination is lacking. Mistakes are frequent,
　
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