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a student notices how easy it is to make a mistake with a
takeoff distance chart after using it several times. She notices
her finger drifts upward or downward when sliding it across a
row of numbers on the chart, sometimes landing on the wrong
number. The student formulates several tactics to ensure she
obtains the correct figures: (1) work slowly and deliberately,
(2) use a ruler, and (3) double-check the work.
But even the experts had to practice. In a study of violinists at
a music academy in Berlin, researchers compared the “best”
students to those who were regarded as merely “very good.”
Using estimates of how many total hours each student had
spent practicing during his or her lifetime, the researchers
found that the best violinists had spent an average of 7,000
hours practicing, while the very good violinists had logged
about 5,000 hours. The scientific study of expertise reiterates
the adage: “Practice makes perfect.”
Awareness of Existence of Unknowns
An important aspect of an expert’s knowledge is an awareness
of what he or she does not know. This is not always the case
with a student. It’s important that an instructor be aware of
situations in which students have acquired “book” knowledge,
but not yet acquired the more in-depth understanding that
comes from association and experience. For example, after
acquiring substantial knowledge of a single-engine training
aircraft, students should understand that a four-seat aircraft
by the same manufacturer should be approached with caution
and not overconfidence.
Summary of Instructor Actions
To help students exercise their knowledge and skills in a
concerted fashion, the instructor should:
• Explain the two types of multitasking and give
examples of each type.
• Ensure that individual skills are reasonably wellpracticed before asking students to perform several
tasks at once.
2-28
Figure 2-21. Other mistakes arise under pressure. For example, a
technician or pilot might perform a cursory inspection of an aircraft
to save time, only to have a problem manifest itself later.
• Teach students how to deal with distractions and
interruptions and provide them with opportunities to
practice.
• Point out fixation and inattention when it occurs.
• Devise scenarios that allow students to use their
knowledge and skill to solve realistic problems and
make decisions.
• Explain to the student that continued practice with the
goal of improving leads to continued improvement.
Errors
Errors are a natural part of human performance. Beginners, as
well as the most highly skilled experts, are vulnerable to error,
and this is perhaps the most important thing to understand
about error. To believe people can eliminate errors from their
performance is to commit the biggest error of all. Instructors
and students alike should be prepared for occasional errors
by learning about common kinds of errors, how errors can
be minimized, how to learn from errors, and how to recover
from errors when they are made.
Kinds of Error
There are two kinds of error: slip and mistake.
Slip
A slip occurs when a person plans to do one thing, but then
inadvertently does something else. Slips are errors of action.
Slips can take on a variety of different forms. One of the most
common forms of slips is to simply neglect to do something.
Other forms of slips occur when people confuse two things
that are similar. Accidentally using a manual that is similar
to the one really needed is an example of this type of slip.
Other forms of slips happen when someone is asked to
perform a routine procedure in a slightly different way. For
example, Beverly has been assigned runway 30 for many
days in a row. This morning she approaches to land and
ATC assigns runway 12 instead. As she approaches the
traffic pattern, she turns to enter the pattern for runway 30
out of habit.
Time pressure is another common source of slips. Studies
of people performing a variety of tasks demonstrated a
phenomenon called the speed-accuracy tradeoff. The more
hurried one’s work becomes the more slips one is likely to
make.
Mistake
A mistake occurs when a person plans to do the wrong thing
and is successful. Mistakes are errors of thought. Mistakes
are sometimes the result of gaps or misconceptions in the
student’s understanding. One type of mistake happens when
a student formulates an understanding of a phenomenon
and then later encounters a situation that shows how this
　
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