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decide whether or not a distraction warrants further attention
or action on their part. Once this has been decided, the
students must either turn their attention back to what they
were doing, or act on the distraction.
An interruption is an unexpected event for which the student
voluntarily suspends performance of one task in order to
complete a different one. Interruptions are a significant
source of errors and students must be made aware of the
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potential for errors caused by interruptions and develop
procedures for dealing with them. A classic example is an
interruption that occurs while a student is following the steps
in a written procedure or checklist. The student puts down
the checklist, deals with the interruption, and then returns to
the procedure—but erroneously picks up at a later point in
the procedure, omitting one or more steps.
Fixation and Inattention
Since human attention is limited in focus and highly prone
to distraction, people are vulnerable to two other types of
problems: fixation and inattention.
Fixation occurs when a student becomes absorbed in
performing one task to the exclusion of other tasks.
Instructors see many examples of this in student performance.
Beginning instrument pilots characteristically fixate on
particular instruments, attempting to control one aspect of
their performance while other aspects deteriorate. Fixation
on a task is often a sign that the task has not received enough
practice in isolation. That is, the student has not yet mastered
the task well enough to perform it in addition to other tasks.
Fixation can happen even when individual skills have been
reasonably mastered, when students have not yet learned
the importance of managing their own limited attentional
resources.
Inattention occurs when a student fails to pay attention to a
task that is important. Inattention is sometimes a natural byproduct of fixation. Students fixate on one task and become
too busy to attend to other tasks. Inattention also happens
when students are not busy: attention may drift when they
become bored or think that a task does not deserve their
attention. In some cases, this type of inattention is difficult
to eliminate through training and practice. For example, it
is well known that humans perform poorly when placed in
the role of passive monitor. Many studies have shown how
performance rapidly deteriorates when humans are asked to
passively monitor gauges or the progress of an automated
system such as a GPS navigation computer or autopilot.
Furthermore, it seems that the more reliable the system
becomes, the poorer the human performance becomes at the
monitoring task. The first line of defense against this type of
inattention is to alert the student to the problem, and to help
students develop habits that keep their attention focused.
How To Identify Fixation or Inattention Problems
One way for instructors to identify problems with fixation
and inattention is to try and follow where students look. To
accomplish this, instructors can glance at a student’s eyes to
try to determine where the student is looking. Students who
appear to look at one instrument for an extended period of
time might have a problem with fixation. Students whose
gaze is never directed toward engine instruments might have
a problem with inattention.
The technique of following student eye movements is useful,
but has limitations since looking in the same direction as the
student is not the same as “seeing” what the student sees.
Scenario-Based Training
Research and practical experience have demonstrated the
usefulness of practicing in realistic scenarios—ones that
resemble the environment in which knowledge and skills
are later used. Instructors must devise scenarios that allow
students to practice what they have learned. This is challenging
because different students need to practice different things at
different times, and because different working environments
present different practice opportunities.
What makes a good scenario? A good scenario:
• Has a clear set of objective.
• Is tailored to the needs of the student.
• Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment.
For example, Bill is introducing Beverly to a low-fuel
emergency. His objective at this early stage is to simply
enable Beverly to recall the sorts of actions that are
appropriate for a low-fuel emergency. He decides to use the
classroom environment as a first practice scenario. He asks
Beverly about what sorts of actions she might take if such
　
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